The troubled teen industry is a term used to refer to a broad range of youth residential programs aimed at struggling teenagers. The term encompasses various facilities and programs, including youth residential treatment centers, wilderness programs, boot camps, and therapeutic boarding schools.[1][2]

These programs claim to rehabilitate and teach troubled teenagers through various practices. Troubled teen facilities are privately run, and the troubled teen industry constitutes a multi-billion dollar industry.[3] They accept young people who are considered to have struggles with learning disabilities, emotional regulation, mental illness, and substance abuse. Young people may be labeled as "troubled teens", delinquents, or other language on their websites and other advertising materials. Sometimes, these therapies are used as a punishment for contravening family expectations.[4]

The troubled teen industry has encountered many scandals due to child abuse, institutional corruption, and deaths, and is highly controversial.[5][6] Many critics of these facilities point to a lack of local, state, and federal laws in the United States and elsewhere governing them.[7] However, some countries, such as Bermuda, have been known to send teenagers to programs located in the United States.[8] In addition to their controversial therapeutic practices, many former residents report being forcibly transported to troubled teen facilities by teen escort companies, a practice dubbed "gooning".[9]

History

The troubled teen industry has a precursor in the drug rehabilitation program called Synanon, founded in 1958 by Charles Dederich.[10] By the late 1970s, Synanon had developed into a cult and adopted a resolution proclaiming the Synanon Religion, with Dederich as the highest spiritual authority, allowing the organization to qualify as tax-exempt under US law. Synanon rejected the use of medication for drug rehabilitation, and instead relied on the "Synanon Game", group sessions of attack therapy where members were encouraged to criticize and humiliate each other.[11][12] Synanon popularized "tough love" attack therapy as a treatment for addiction, and the idea that confrontation and verbal condemnation could cure adolescent misbehavior. Synanon disbanded in 1991, after its tax-exempt status was revoked by the IRS and it was bankrupted by having to pay US$17 million in back taxes.[13]

A large and elegant pink-and-tan building with several archways and two large wings on either side.
The historic Hotel Casa del Mar functioned as the Synanon headquarters beginning in 1967.

Synanon's techniques were highly influential and inspired human potential self-help organizations such as Erhard Seminars Training (est) and Lifespring.[10]

Synanon-style therapy was also used in Straight, Incorporated and The Seed, two drug rehabilitation programs for youth.[14]: 8 

Former Synanon member Mel Wasserman founded CEDU Educational Services in 1967, a company which operated within the troubled teens industry. CEDU owned several for-profit therapeutic boarding schools, group homes, and behavior modification programs. The techniques used by CEDU schools were derived from Synanon's; for example, long, confrontational large-group sessions called "Propheets" took cues from the Synanon Game.[14]: 122 [15] CEDU went out of business in 2005, amid lawsuits and state regulatory crackdowns.[15][16]

Joseph "Joe" Ricci, dropout from a direct Synanon-descendent program, founded a therapeutic boarding school called Élan School in 1970.[14]: 122 [17] Élan closed down in 2011 amid persistent allegations of abuse.[18]

Synanon's techniques also inspired the World Wide Association of Specialty Programs (WWASP), an umbrella organization of facilities meant for rehabilitating troubled teenagers.[14]: 132–133  WWASP is no longer in business, due to widespread allegations of physical and psychological abuse.[19] Many WWASP programs were shut down by the Costa Rican,[20] Jamaican, and Mexican governments.[21] After investigations into allegations of abuse.

Practices

Troubled teen programs have been criticized for failing to offer evidence-based therapies such as cognitive behavioral therapy or trauma- and violence-informed care.[7] Many or most troubled teen programs share a common lineage descending from Synanon, and use some form of "the game," a group attack therapy session. Additionally, some TTI programs use a form of primal therapy, a discredited form of therapy which involves reenacting traumatic and painful moments such as rape.[22]

Many practices used in troubled teen programs, especially punishments, have been singled out as constituting child abuse or neglect. These include but are not limited to: restricting communication with family and peers; use of physical and chemical restraint (i.e., in the form of sedative drugs); use of seclusion as punishment; gay conversion therapy; excessive use of strip search and cavity search; denial of sleep and nutrition; aversion therapy; etc.[22]

In 2007, the Government Accountability Office published a study verifying thousands of reports of abuse and death in TTI facilities dating back to 1990.[7][23][24] The National Disability Rights Network published a report in 2021 reporting common issues at troubled teen facilities including the aforementioned forms of abuse as well as chronic staffing shortages, deprivation of education, and unhygienic and unsafe facility conditions.[25]

Transportation

Many troubled teen institutions offer youth transportation through teen escort companies, in which minors are transported to their facilities against their will. Parents who sign their children up for troubled teen camps will sign over temporary custody to the teen escort company.[26] This transportation is a service offered in the United States and elsewhere, and is a practice that has been criticized on ethical and legal grounds as being akin to kidnapping.[27] Some of the subjects report not realizing they were transported with permission of their parents until days afterward.[28][2][29] Clients have reported being ambushed in their own beds at home, or tricked into believing they are going elsewhere.[30] Those who have been in the troubled teen industry call this process "gooning".[31] There have been incidents where transportation staff have impersonated government officials.[32] Former clients of troubled teen programs have made efforts to pursue legal recourse through civil lawsuits targeting both parents and the companies associated with these programs.[33]

Controversies

False imprisonment

19-year-old Fred Collins Jr. found himself falsely imprisoned by Straight Inc., after initially visiting a family member who was enrolled in the program by his parents.[34] Upon arrival, he was kept in a windowless room for six-and-a-half hours, and the staff refused to let him leave until he agreed to enroll into the program.[35] At one New Mexico program, Tierra Blanca Ranch, the authorities found that the adolescent clients had been shackled and handcuffed.[36]

Forced labor

Numerous troubled teen programs have been reported to engage in the practice of compelled labor, wherein program participants are required to perform physically demanding tasks such as wood chopping and horse manure shoveling.[37][38]

Stress positions

In certain instances, troubled teen programs have employed a torture technique known as "stress positions" as a form of discipline against their clients.[39]

Strip searches

Many troubled teen programs conduct forced strip searches against the will of adolescent clients.[40]

Solitary confinement

Numerous troubled teen programs, including the well-known Provo Canyon School, have faced allegations of employing solitary confinement as a disciplinary measure. Solitary confinement is a controversial practice that involves isolating individuals from social contact and is the subject of extensive debate regarding its ethical and psychological implications. Additionally, the now-defunct program known as Tranquility Bay, located in Jamaica, has also been reported to have utilized solitary confinement as part of its disciplinary methods. This practice has garnered considerable attention and criticism from various quarters.[41]

Psychological abuse

Numerous reports have surfaced, documenting instances of psychological abuse inflicted upon clients within troubled teen programs. One particularly disturbing example of such abuse involves mock executions, wherein students were coerced into digging their own graves as part of a psychologically distressing exercise. These allegations highlight the gravity of ethical concerns within these programs and have sparked significant scrutiny and criticism from various outlets.[42]

Regulatory laws

Utah, California, Oregon, Montana, and Missouri have all enacted laws aimed at increasing oversight of troubled teen facilities. Utah's law was proposed in 2021 after noted celebrity Paris Hilton came out with her story about her experience at Provo Canyon School. Hilton's testimony triggered a state investigation into the facility, and she later advocated for the law when it was in the process of being passed.[43]

In the United States Congress, bills were proposed to regulate troubled teen facilities every year from 2007 to 2018.[43] In 2021, the Stronger Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act was passed by the House of Representatives. As of July 2023, it has not been passed by the Senate.

Timeline

  • 1967: CEDU High School is founded by Mel Wasserman, a former Synanon member, in Running Springs, CA.[44]
  • May 30, 1970: The Élan School is founded by Joe Ricci, a former resident of Daytop Village, in Naples, ME.[45][46]
  • February 16, 1982: Nancy Reagan visits Straight, Inc. in Florida.[47]
  • December 27, 1982 Philip Williams Jr. dies in Elan School boxing ring.[48]
  • May 26, 1983: A federal jury awards a Straight, Inc. patient $220,000 after finding said patient to have been falsely imprisoned by the foundation.[34]
  • November 11, 1985: Princess Diana and Nancy Reagan visit Straight, Inc.[49]
  • 1987: Scientology's troubled teen program, called Mace-Kingsley Ranch School, opens in California.[50]
  • January 15, 1995: Aaron Bacon dies from acute peritonitis while attending the North Star Wilderness Program in Utah.[51]
  • December 21, 1996: Craig Fisher is sentenced over his role in Aaron Bacon's death.[52]
  • 1998: Robert Lichfield creates the World Wide Association of Specialty Programs and Schools.[53]
  • 1999: National Association of Therapeutic Schools and Programs is founded.[54][55]
  • February 2001: 14-year-old Ryan Lewis commits suicide while enrolled at Alldredge Academy in West Virginia.[56][57]
  • July 2001: 14-year-old Tony Haynes is forced to eat dirt and dies at a desert boot camp for teenagers.[58][59]
  • July 15, 2002: Ian August dies while attending the Skyline Journey Wilderness Program in Utah.[60]
  • December 25, 2002: A 17-year-old girl named Kiley Jaquays falls to her death while visiting the Bloomington Caves in Utah with her residential treatment center, Integrity House.[61]
  • May 23, 2003: Costa Rican government officials shut down the Academy at Dundee Ranch, a behavior modification program run by the US-based company World Wide Association of Specialty Programs and Schools.[62]
  • February 8, 2004: 16-year-old Daniel Yeun goes missing from CEDU High School in the state of California.[63]
  • October 2004: Karlye Newman commits suicide at Spring Creek Lodge Academy.[64]
  • 2006: Yang Yongxin establishes an "Internet-addiction camp" inside the Fourth Hospital of Linyi in China and begins practicing electroconvulsive therapy.
  • February 8, 2013: The hacking collective group Anonymous launches a campaign against the troubled teen industry called #OpTTIabuse.[65]
  • November 2015: Ten teenagers are arrested due to a riot at Copper Hills Youth Center in Utah.[66]
  • February 2017: 16-year-old Ben Jackson commits suicide at Montana Academy.[67]
  • July 10, 2019: Red Rock Canyon School in Utah closes after a riot breaks out in April 2019.[68]
  • April 2020: 16-year-old Cornelius Fredericks dies while being restrained.[69]
  • October 9, 2020: American socialite Paris Hilton and other former residents of Provo Canyon School lead a silent protest against the school in Provo, Utah.[70]
  • August 31, 2022: Agape Baptist Academy is served an indictment for transporting a California teenager and violating protection order.[71]
  • January 11, 2023: Agape Baptist Academy announces plans for permanent closure.[72]

Media

  • Children of Darkness, a 1983 documentary on the Élan School
  • Not My Kid, a 1985 TV movie based on the Straight, Inc. program
  • Without Consent, a 1994 TV movie about a teenager sent to abusive residential treatment center where clients are drugged and abused.
  • Locked in Paradise, a television program on the troubled teen program called Tranquility Bay, aired in December 2004.[73]
  • Brat Camp, a reality TV show first aired in 2005, where teenagers are sent to wilderness therapy programs in the states of Utah, Idaho, and Arizona.[74]
  • In The Simpsons episode "We're on the Road to D'ohwhere", Bart is enrolled at Upward Bound, a behavior modification program. During his time there, he chops firewood.
  • Boot Camp, a 2008 film based on the WWASP program Paradise Cove, located in Samoa.
  • The Mentalist: In the season one episode "Blood Brothers", the team investigate the death of a teen who has been murdered at a school for troubled teens. It is revealed the reason the teenager was sent to the program because he spent too much time in his bedroom and was argumentative.[75]
  • Kidnapped for Christ, a documentary released in 2014 about a Christian behavior modification program.[76]
  • The Last Stop, a documentary on the Élan School released in 2017.[77]
  • Life Boat, a short film created, written, and directed by Lorriane Nicholson and starring Stephen Dorff, released in 2017.[78]
  • This Is Paris, a documentary on Paris Hilton's experience in various troubled-teen programs, released in 2020[79]
  • Joe versus Elan School, a web-based graphic novel.
  • Cruel Instruction, a 2022 TV movie about 16-year-old Kayla Adams who is sent is to a therapeutic boarding school.[80]
  • Outer Banks: In the ninth episode of Season Three, the 17-year-old character Kiara is sent to Kitty Hawk, a wilderness therapy program where she is diagnosed with Oppositional defiant disorder.[81]
  • Hell Camp: Teen Nightmare Released in December 2023 it is a documentary about a wilderness therapy program called the Challenger Foundation that was based in the state of Utah and covers the controversial conditions of the program and the death of Kristen Chase.[82]

See also

References

  1. ↑ Mooney, Heather; Leighton, Paul (2019). "Troubled Affluent Youth's Experiences in a Therapeutic Boarding School: The Elite Arm of the Youth Control Complex and Its Implications for Youth Justice". Critical Criminology. 27 (4): 611–626. doi:10.1007/s10612-019-09466-4. ISSN 1572-9877. S2CID 210585644.
  2. 1 2 Golightley, Sarah (2020). "Troubling the 'troubled teen' industry: Adult reflections on youth experiences of therapeutic boarding schools". Global Studies of Childhood. 10 (1): 53–63. doi:10.1177/2043610619900514. ISSN 2043-6106. S2CID 213786803.
  3. ↑ Krebs, Cathy (22 October 2021). "Five Facts About the Troubled Teen Industry". American Bar Association. American Bar Association. Retrieved 10 February 2023.
  4. ↑ Okoren, Nicolle (14 November 2022). "The wilderness 'therapy' that teens say feels like abuse: 'You are on guard at all times'". the Guardian. Retrieved 5 January 2023.
  5. ↑ Younis, Yasmin (2021). "Institutionalized Child Abuse: The Troubled Teen Industry". SLU Law Journal Online.
  6. ↑ Mohr, Wanda K. (2009). "Still Shackled in the Land of Liberty: Denying Children the Right to be Safe From Abusive "Treatment"". Advances in Nursing Science. 32 (2): 173–185. doi:10.1097/ANS.0b013e3181a3b16f. ISSN 0161-9268. PMID 19461233. S2CID 40494944.
  7. 1 2 3 Review, The Regulatory (2023-06-27). "The Troubled Teen Industry's Troubling Lack of Oversight | The Regulatory Review". www.theregreview.org. Retrieved 2023-07-13. Once there, RTFs advertise care, promise behavior modification, and seek to "fix" whatever parents may deem wrong with their teenage kids. But RTFs too often punish mental health and behavior, instead of treating it. Actual, evidence-based treatment, such as cognitive behavior therapy or trauma-informed care, is frequently supplanted by cruel, archaic methods of physical, emotional, and sexual abuse.
  8. ↑ Miller, Jessica (3 February 2020). "A teen from Bermuda died at a Utah treatment center, sparking anger there and investigations here". The Salt Lake Tribune. ISSN 0746-3502. OCLC 137343114. Retrieved 2023-12-24. She had been sent by Bermuda's child welfare system more than 2,600 miles away to a Utah facility for troubled teens that was supposed to help her.
  9. ↑ Collins-Hughes, Laura (2016-10-20). "Therapy Becomes Theater in 'Wilderness'". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2023-08-30. The slang term is gooning, as in taken by goons.
  10. 1 2 Szalavitz, Maia (17 April 2009). "An Oregon School for Troubled Teens Is Under Scrutiny". Time. Retrieved 10 February 2023.
  11. ↑ Novak, Matt (15 April 2014). "Synanon's Sober Utopia: How a Drug Rehab Program Became a Violent Cult". Gizmodo. G/O Media. Retrieved 10 February 2023.
  12. ↑ Ofshe, Richard (Summer 1980). "The Social Development of the Synanon Cult: The Managerial Strategy of Organizational Transformation". Sociological Analysis. 41 (2): 109–127. doi:10.2307/3709903. JSTOR 3709903. Retrieved October 20, 2022.
  13. ↑ Messick, Brandon (10 December 2018). "The new neighbors". The Associated Press. Retrieved 10 February 2023.
  14. 1 2 3 4 Szalavitz, Maia (16 February 2006). Help at Any Cost: How the Troubled-Teen Industry Cons Parents and Hurts Kids. New York City: Riverhead Books. ISBN 1-59448-910-6.
  15. 1 2 Hawkins, Eric (8 June 2020). "California School For 'Troubled Teens' Had Roots In A Notorious, Militant Cult". Oxygen True Crime. NBCUniversal. Retrieved 10 February 2023.
  16. ↑ Hansen, Dan; Drumheller, Susan (26 March 2005). "CEDU shutting down". The Spokesman-Review. Spokane, Washington. Retrieved 10 February 2023.
  17. ↑ "Ex-Head of Suspect's School Won't Testify in '75 Murder Case". The New York Times. 25 September 1998. Retrieved 10 February 2023.
  18. ↑ Bowman, Parker (19 May 2021). "Valley Vertigo: Documentary details controversial and experimental Élan School". The Sentinel. Hanford, California. Retrieved 10 February 2023.
  19. ↑ Kirk Brown, Abbeville school had role in rise and fall of enterprise for serving troubled teens Archived 2013-06-14 at the Wayback Machine, Anderson (South Carolina) Independent Mail, December 17, 2010
  20. ↑ Weiner, Tim (2003-05-23). "Costa Rica Intervenes at Troubled U.S.-Owned Academy". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2023-09-24.
  21. ↑ Weiner, Tim (2004-09-26). "Mexico Shuts Tough-Love Center". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2023-09-24.
  22. 1 2 "The Troubled Teen Industry – Breaking Code Silence". Retrieved 2023-07-13.
  23. ↑ "Residential Treatment Programs: Concerns Regarding Abuse and Death in Certain Programs for Troubled Youth | U.S. GAO". www.gao.gov. Retrieved 2023-07-30.
  24. ↑ Kutz, Gregory D.; O'Connell, Andy (October 10, 2007). "RESIDENTIAL TREATMENT PROGRAMS: Concerns Regarding Abuse and Death in Certain Programs for Troubled Youth" (PDF). Government Accountability Office. Retrieved July 13, 2023.
  25. ↑ "Desperation Without Dignity: Conditions of Children Placed in For Profit Residential Facilities" (PDF). National Disability Rights Network. July 13, 2023.
  26. ↑ "The man who takes troubled youths to therapy camp". BBC News. 22 April 2014. Retrieved 5 January 2023.
  27. ↑ Ortiz, Michelle Ray (1999-06-13). "'Escort Service' or Legalized Abduction?". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 2023-06-22. For a few hundred dollars, parents pushed to the edge by teens' defiant and destructive behavior can hire "escorts" to rouse their children in the middle of the night and haul them away—in handcuffs if needed.
  28. ↑ Magnuson, Doug; Dobud, Will; Harper, Nevin J. (2022). "Can Involuntary Youth Transport into Outdoor Behavioral Healthcare Treatment Programs (Wilderness Therapy) Ever Be Ethical?". Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal. doi:10.1007/s10560-022-00864-2. ISSN 1573-2797. S2CID 250539733.
  29. ↑ Robbins, Ira P. (2014). "Kidnapping Incorporated: The Unregulated Youth-Transportation Industry and the Potential for Abuse". American Criminal Law Review. 51: 563.
  30. ↑ Rensin, Emmett (7 July 2016). "Vox First Person: I went into the woods a teenage drug addict and came out sober. Was it worth it?". Vox. Retrieved 6 January 2023.
  31. ↑ "The Troubled Teen Industry's Troubling Lack of Oversight". www.law.upenn.edu. Retrieved 2023-09-23. Teens may be subject to legally and ethically dubious tactics before they ever step foot on the grounds of the RTF, with the advent of an industry practice dubbed "gooning" by which youth are placed into these facilities against their will.
  32. ↑ "Daughter claims she was kidnapped – UPI Archives". UPI. Retrieved 2023-09-24.
  33. ↑ Holding, Reynolds (1996-09-22). "HOLDING COURT – Where Parents' Rights Leave Off / A Palo Alto..." SFGATE. Retrieved 2023-09-24.
  34. 1 2 Zibart, Eve (May 26, 1983). "Drug Patient's Award $220,000". The Washington Post. Retrieved December 28, 2022. The request for punitive damages was based on what Collins' chief counsel Philip J. Hirschkop described as a "continuing pattern" of false imprisonment by Straight Inc. staffers.
  35. ↑ "Fred Collins, Appellee, v. Straight, Inc., a Florida Corp., Licensed to Do Business Inthe State of Virginia, Appellant, 748 F.2d 916 (4th Cir. 1984)". Justia Law. Retrieved 2023-09-23.
  36. ↑ Frosch, Dan (2013-10-16). "Lost Youths Are Found, but Ranch Director Is Sought Amid Claims of Beatings". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2023-09-24.
  37. ↑ "Utah ranch for 'troubled teens' could lose its license for subjecting kids to forced labor, 'repetitive walking'". The Salt Lake Tribune. Retrieved 2023-09-23.
  38. ↑ "Woman says she was punished at Turn-About Ranch after reporting a sexual assault". The Salt Lake Tribune. Retrieved 2023-09-23.
  39. ↑ Dahlburg, John-Thor (2003-07-13). "Troubled Times for 'Tough Love'". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 2023-09-24. Amberly Knight, a former director of Dundee Ranch, said in an interview that staff members regularly abused the students, including forcing them to stand, kneel, sit or lie on a concrete floor eight hours a day. She also detailed her claims in a letter to Costa Rican authorities.
  40. ↑ Fanlo, Ciara (2022-11-15). "I survived a wilderness camp: 'It's not necessary to break a person's will'". The Guardian. Guardian Media Group. ISSN 0261-3077. OCLC 60623878. Retrieved 2023-09-23. I was 17 when escorts drove me to a warehouse, strip-searched me and told me to put all my belongings in a shoebox.
  41. ↑ Weiner, Tim (2003-05-09). "Parents, Shopping for Discipline, Turn to Harsh Programs Abroad". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2023-09-23. The punishments for breaking the rules included solitary confinement, lying on the floor in a small room, nose to the ground, often for days on end.
  42. ↑ "Will Rachel Uchitel ever be able to leave the word 'mistress' behind her?". Los Angeles Times. 2021-01-17. Retrieved 2023-09-23.
  43. 1 2 Evans, Cameron (2022-01-21). "State Laws Aim to Regulate 'Troubled Teen Industry,' but Loopholes Remain". KFF Health News. Retrieved 2023-07-13.
  44. ↑ Nussberger, Kathy (26 June 2005). "Bigger Than Life: A personal journey into the history of CEDU". Struggling Teens. Archived from the original on 30 November 2020. Retrieved 12 January 2023.
  45. ↑ Fraga, Kaleena (12 January 2022). "The Controversial Story Of The Élan School, The 'Last Stop' For Troubled Teens In Maine". All That's Interesting. Archived from the original on 3 December 2022. Retrieved 13 January 2023.
  46. ↑ Curley, Maura (1991). Duck in a Raincoat (2nd ed.). Marblehead, MA: Menukie Press. pp. 2–5.
  47. ↑ Nemy, Enid (February 16, 1982). "MRS. REAGAN, IN FLORIDA, SEES EFFORTS TO FIGHT DRUG ABUSE". The New York Times. Retrieved December 28, 2022.
  48. ↑ "Police looking into 33-year-old death at Elan School". AP News. 2016-03-15. Retrieved 2023-07-30.
  49. ↑ SCHAFER, SUSANNE (November 11, 1985). "Princess Diana and Nancy Reagan Visit Drug Abuse Center With AM-Royalty, Bjt". AP News. Retrieved December 28, 2022. Nancy Reagan and Princess Diana heard gut-wrenching stories about drug abuse Monday from teen-agers striving to recover at a suburban drug treatment center.
  50. ↑ Bentley, Jean (2017-10-10). "'Leah Remini: Scientology and the Aftermath' Investigates Church's Treatment of Children". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved 2023-01-20.
  51. ↑ Morgenstern, Joe (January 15, 1995). "A Death in the Desert". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved December 28, 2022. In fact, Aaron was dead. After collapsing on the trail, he had died in the back of a North Star pickup truck on Hole in the Rock Road, 15 miles southeast of Escalante. An emergency evacuation helicopter summoned by North Star took Aaron's body to a medical facility in Page, Ariz., where a doctor made the death official.
  52. ↑ "FORMER NORTH STAR COUNSELOR SENTENCED TO A YEAR IN JAIL". Deseret News. December 21, 1996. Retrieved December 28, 2022. A former counselor in the wilderness therapy program, Craig Fisher, was ordered Thursday to spend time in the Garfield County Jail for his role in the 1994 death of Aaron Bacon, 16, of Phoenix
  53. ↑ Dahlburg, John-Thor (2003-07-13). "Key to His Schools' Success? It's God, Founder Says". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 2023-05-11.
  54. ↑ "News & Views, 4/1999 – Natsap Launched". strugglingteens.com. Retrieved 2023-08-10.
  55. ↑ Santa, John L. (Nov 30, 2019). "A Brief History of the National Association of Therapeutic Schools and Programs, Reprinted and Updated". Journal of Therapeutic Schools and Programs. 11: 18–29. doi:10.19157/JTSP.issue.11.01.10. S2CID 203019189.
  56. ↑ "Does science support the "wilderness" in wilderness therapy?". Salon. 2020-02-02. Retrieved 2023-08-10.
  57. ↑ "A Troubling Solution for Teens in Trouble". www.unmarriedamerica.org. Retrieved 2023-08-10.
  58. ↑ "14-Year-Old Dies at Desert Boot Camp". ABC News. Retrieved 2023-08-10.
  59. ↑ Janofsky, Michael (2001-07-04). "Desert Boot Camp for Youth Is Shut Down After a Death". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2023-08-10.
  60. ↑ "Teen Dies During Utah Wilderness Hike". AP News. July 15, 2002. Retrieved December 28, 2022.
  61. ↑ "Teen girl dies in fall from ledge". Deseret News. December 25, 2002. Retrieved December 28, 2022.
  62. ↑ "Costa Rica Intervenes at Troubled U.S.-Owned Academy". The New York Times. May 23, 2003. Retrieved December 28, 2022. The Costa Rican authorities moved today to seize an American-owned behavior-modification academy for children after hearing allegations of physical and emotional abuse, officials said.
  63. ↑ Shaprio, Emily (January 19, 2019). "New clues emerge 15 years after teen's disappearance: 'We just want to know he's safe,' family says". ABC News. Retrieved December 28, 2022.
  64. ↑ https://www.deseret.com/authors/deseret-news (2012-03-09). "Supco orders new trial in boarding school suicide". Deseret News. Retrieved 2023-07-25. {{cite web}}: External link in |last= (help)
  65. ↑ "Anonymous goes after the "troubled-teen industry"". Daily Dot. February 8, 2013. Retrieved December 28, 2022.
  66. ↑ "10 teens arrested in riot at youth treatment center". Deseret News. 2015-11-02. Retrieved 2023-05-05. Ten teenagers were arrested at a residential treatment center Sunday and booked into juvenile detention after allegedly causing a riot.
  67. ↑ "10 Life and Death at Montana Academy". The Missoulan. 2018-11-02. Retrieved 2023-05-05. Life and Death at Montana Academy
  68. ↑ Miller, Jessica (July 10, 2019). "After a riot, increasing violence and now sex abuse allegations, Red Rock Canyon school will close". The Salt Lake Tribune. Retrieved December 28, 2022. A school for troubled youth has decided to close after it faced intense scrutiny following a riot and recent revelations about the number of staffers accused of assaulting students.
  69. ↑ Hauser, Christine; Levenson, Michael (2020-06-24). "Three Charged in Death of Michigan Teenager Restrained at Youth Academy". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2023-09-23.
  70. ↑ Corinthios, Aurelie (October 9, 2020). "Paris Hilton Planning Peaceful Protest of Utah School with Survivors of Alleged Abuse".
  71. ↑ Salter, Jim (31 August 2022). "Indictment: Boy forcibly taken to Missouri boarding school". AP NEWS. Retrieved 6 January 2023.
  72. ↑ Salter, Jim (11 January 2023). "Missouri boarding school under investigation will shut down". AP NEWS. Retrieved 12 January 2023.
  73. ↑ Locked in Paradise
  74. ↑ Wollaston, Sam (2004-03-10). "Short, sharp strop". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 2023-05-24.
  75. ↑ Polson, John (2009-05-12), Blood Brothers, The Mentalist, Simon Baker, Robin Tunney, Tim Kang, retrieved 2023-06-03
  76. ↑ Genzlinger, Neil (2014-07-09). "The Kids Aren't All Right, and Neither Is the School". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2023-09-23.
  77. ↑ Nilssen, Todd (2017-04-29), The Last Stop (Documentary, biography, Drama), retrieved 2022-12-26
  78. ↑ Nicholson, Lorraine, Life Boat (Short), retrieved 2022-12-26
  79. ↑ Dean, Alexandra (2020-09-14), This Is Paris (Documentary), The Intellectual Property Corporation (IPC), retrieved 2022-12-26
  80. ↑ Brooks, Stanley M. (2022-03-12), Cruel Instruction (Drama, Thriller), Kelcey Mawema, Morgan Taylor Campbell, Camryn Manheim, Happily Ever After Films, Lighthouse Pictures, Mar Vista Productions, retrieved 2023-07-21
  81. ↑ Pate, Jonas (2023-02-23), Welcome to Kitty Hawk, Outer Banks, Chase Stokes, Madelyn Cline, Madison Bailey, retrieved 2023-07-13
  82. ↑ Heritage, Stuart (2023-12-27). "Hell Camp: Teen Nightmare review – so dark it's an anti-Christmas watchalong". The Guardian. Guardian Media Group. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 2023-12-27.

Further reading

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