South Pacific aid mission

Portside view of the Challenger-class light cruiser HMAS Encounter

The disease arrived in the South Pacific on the cargo vessel SS Talune, which sailed from Auckland on 30 October 1918 whilst knowingly carrying sick passengers. Talune stopped in Fiji, Samoa, Tonga and Nauru: the first outbreaks in these locations occurred within days of the ships visits. The local authorities were generally unprepared for the size of the outbreak, allowing the infection to spread uncontrollably. The German territory of Samoa was the worst affected of the small islands, the New Zealand administration carried out no efforts to lessen the outbreak and rejected offers of assistance from nearby American Samoa. The New Zealand government officially apologised to Samoa in 2002 for their reaction to the outbreak.^[37] On 29 November 1918 the military governor of Apia requested assistance from Wellington; the request was turned down because all doctors were needed in New Zealand. Australia offered the only alternate source of aid.

The Commonwealth Naval Board was aware of the worsening situation in the region; the sloop HMAS Fantome reported its first case on 11 November 1918 while stationed in Fiji, with half her complement eventually affected. On 20 November 1918, the Naval Board began forming a joint relief expedition from available military medical personnel. The commanding officer of HMAS Encounter was then ordered to embark the expedition in Sydney and sail as soon as possible. Encounter departed Sydney on 24 November 1918, ten minutes after completing loading.^[35] As a precaution, all 450 members of Encounter's crew were doubly inoculated; the ship had suffered 74 cases earlier in the year at Fremantle and the captain did not want a repeat. Encounter arrived in Suva on 30 November and took on half of the available coal and 39 tonnes of water.^[38] Spanish flu was rampant in Suva; Captain Thring implemented a strict quarantine, placed guards on the wharf, and ordered that coaling be carried out by the crew instead of native labour. Encounter departed Suva in the evening of the same day and arrived off Apia on 3 December. Within six hours, the medical landing party assigned to Apia and their stores were ashore. Encounter then departed for the Tongan capital of Nukuʻalofa, arriving on 5 December. The last of the medical staff and supplies were unloaded, and Encounter sailed for Suva on 7 December to re-coal. On arriving in Suva, Encounter received orders to return to Sydney, where reached on 17 December and was immediately placed into quarantine. The South Pacific aid mission is regarded as Australia's first overseas relief expedition, and set a precedent for future relief missions conducted by the RAN.^[35]

Operations against Italy, Vichy France and Germany

From mid-1940, ships of the RAN, at the request of the Admiralty, began to deploy to the Mediterranean Sea to take part in the Battle of the Mediterranean against Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy. In September 1939, the Admiralty and the Australian Commonwealth Naval Board agreed to deploy the RAN Destroyer Flotilla outside the Australia Station; the five ships of what was to become known as the Scrap Iron Flotilla arrived at Malta in mid-December.^[45] HMAS Sydney deployed in May 1940 and was later joined by Hobart. When Italy declared war on 10 June 1940, the Australian warships made up five of the twenty-two Allied destroyers and one of the five modern light cruisers on station in the Mediterranean. The RAN then offered the services of Australia to the Admiralty, and was accepted. When Australia arrived in the Mediterranean, the RAN had sent nearly the entire combat fleet to the Northern Hemisphere, leaving Australia open to possible attack.^[46]

The entry of Italy into the war also lead to a far more active role for the few remaining RAN vessels on the Australian Station. Indeed, on 12 June 1940, after a prolonged chase, the Armed Merchant Cruiser (AMC) HMAS Manoora forced the Italian merchant ship Romolo (9,780 tons) to scuttle south-west of Nauru.^[47]

On 27 June 1940, Admiral Cunningham commander of the Mediterranean Fleet ordered the 7th Cruiser Squadron, which included HMAS Sydney, to rendezvous with an Egypt-bound convoy near Cape Matapan.^[48] The cruiser squadron sighted three Italian destroyers at 18.00 on 28 June 1940 and immediately engaged them.^[49] Within an hour, the Espero was incapacitated and Sydney was signalled to sink her.^[49] As Sydney approached, Espero launched torpedoes, but failed to hit any targets.^[49] Sydney fired four salvos, scoring ten direct hits on Espero.^[49] Sydney remained at the scene for two hours picking up survivors.^[49]

Also on 27 June 1940, the Console Generale Liuzzi was scuttled south of Crete after being depth-charged by HMAS Voyager and the British destroyers Dainty, Ilex, Decoy, and Defender. On 29 June 1940, another Italian submarine, the Uebi Scebeli, was sunk west of Crete by the same ships.^[50]

On 7 July 1940, a 25-ship fleet departed Alexandria, intending to meet a convoy east of Malta.^[51] The next day, a submarine sighted an Italian fleet 500 miles (800 km) away; the Allied fleet altered course to intercept.^[52] The two fleets sighted each other at 15.00 on 9 July 1940, and a battle that became known as the Battle of Calabria began.^[53] Four vessels of the RAN took part in the battle; HMA Ships Sydney, Stuart, Vampire, and Voyager. Sydney was the first RAN vessel to engage the enemy, and at 15.20 opened fire on an Italian cruiser.^[53] When the Italian fleet began to withdraw, the Allied destroyer squadron was ordered forward. Stuart, leading the destroyer force, was the first to open fire; her opening salvo was a direct hit at a range of 12,600 yards (11,500 m). Both fleets retired, with the Italians withdrawing under smoke, but Italian aircraft continued to attack Allied ships.^[54] Sydney, which came under heavy air attack, was believed to have sunk.^[55] The fleet arrived back in Alexandria on 13 July.^[54]

Bartolomeo Colleoni sinking, 19 July 1940

On 17 July 1940, HMAS Sydney and the destroyer HMS Havock were ordered to support a Royal Navy destroyer squadron on a sweep north of the island of Crete.^[56] At 07.20 on 19 July, the Italian cruisers Giovanni dalle Bande Nere and Bartolomeo Colleoni, which opened fire seven minutes later.^[57] The four British destroyers retreated to the north-east, while Sydney and Havock, 40 miles (60 km) away, began to close in.^[58] Sydney sighted the cruisers at 08.29, and fired the first shots of the Battle of Cape Spada at a range of 17,360 metres (56,960 ft).^[59] Within minutes, Sydney had successfully damaged Bande Nere, and when the Italians withdrew to the south, the six Allied ships pursued.^[60] At 0848, with Bande Nere hiding behind a smoke screen, Sydney shifted her fire to Bartolomeo Colleoni, which was disabled by 0933.^[61] The Australian cruiser left to pursue Bande Nere, but broke off at 10.27 as the Italian warship was out of range, and Sydney was dangerously low on ammunition.^[59][62] The only damage to Sydney during the battle was caused by a shell at 09.21, which knocked a hole in the forward funnel, and wounded a sailor through splinter damage.^[63]

Sailors from Sydney posing around and in the forward funnel shellhole

On 30 September 1940, HMAS Stuart destroyed the Italian 600-Serie Adua class submarine Gondar, killing two of its crew. Twenty-eight survivors was subsequently rescued by Stuart, with a further nineteen picked up by other vessels.^[64]

On 27 March 1941, an Allied fleet under Admiral Cunningham was ambushed by an Italian naval force off Cape Matapan, Greece.^[65] Three vessels of the RAN took part in the battle; HMA Ships Perth, Stuart, and Vampire. The victory at Cape Matapan allowed the evacuation of thousands of Allied troops from Crete.^[66]

HMAS Parramatta was torpedoed and sunk on 27 November 1941 by U-559 whilst escorting transports resupplying the Allied garrison at Tobruk. There were 24 survivors, but 138 men, including all officers, lost their lives.^[67]

The Australians experienced further success on 15 December 1941 when HMAS Nestor attacked and sank the German submarine U-127 off Cape St. Vincent, Portugal.^[68]

The "Scrap-Iron Flotilla"

Main article: Scrap Iron Flotilla

The Scrap Iron Flotilla was an Australian destroyer group that operated in the Mediterranean and Pacific during World War II. The name was bestowed upon the group by Nazi Propaganda Minister Joseph Goebbels who described the fleet as a "consignment of junk" and "Australia's Scrap-Iron Flotilla". The flotilla consisted of five vessels; Scott-class destroyer HMAS Stuart, which acted as flotilla leader, and four V-class destroyers; Vampire, Vendetta, Voyager, Waterhen. The ships were all built to fight in World War I, and were slow and poorly armed compared to newer ships.^[71] The five destroyers—the entirety of the RAN's destroyer force—departed Australia in November 1939 destined for Singapore where they carried out anti-submarine exercises with the Royal Navy submarine HMS Rover.^[72] On 13 November 1939, the flotilla left Singapore for the Mediterranean Sea, following a request from the Admiralty for assistance.

HMAS Waterhen

The Australian destroyer flotilla took part in multiple actions while in the Mediterranean, including the Allied evacuation following the battle of Greece in April 1941, though the flotilla came to fame in the mission to resupply the besieged city of Tobruk. The resupply routes from Alexandria and Mersa Matruh to Tobruk became known as "Bomb Alley" and was subject to constant Axis air attacks.^[71] The flotilla, which by this time was in poor condition, managed to make 138 supply runs to Tobruk, carrying in ammunition and stores and taking out wounded soldiers. On 28 May 1941 Vampire became the first of the flotilla to leave the Mediterranean. Vendetta, the last to leave, sailed in October 1941.

Of the five destroyers, three were lost during the war; Waterhen was sunk in the Mediterranean on 30 June 1941, Vampire was sunk by Japanese aircraft during the Indian Ocean Raid and Voyager ran aground at Betano, during the Timor campaign and was abandoned.^[73]

Loss of HMAS Sydney

Main article: Sinking of HMAS Sydney

Memorial to HMAS Sydney at the state war memorial in Western Australia

On 19 November 1941, the Australian light cruiser HMAS Sydney and the German auxiliary cruiser Kormoran engaged each other in the Indian Ocean, off Western Australia. The two ships sank each other: Sydney was lost with all 645 hands, while the majority of the Kormoran's crew were rescued and became prisoners of war. The location of both wrecks remained a mystery to many and subject to much controversy until 16–17 March 2008, when both ships were found.

Sicily 1943

During early 1943, eight Australian-designed and built Bathurst-class corvettes were transferred to Egypt from the Indian Ocean, in preparation for Operation Husky, the Allied invasion of Sicily.^[76] They were part of a 3,000-ship Allied force. The corvettes arrived in the Mediterranean in May and were formed into the 21st and 22nd Minesweeping Flotillas. All eight ships survived the campaign without damage or casualties sustained in action, although HMAS Maryborough experienced a near-miss from a German bomber. When the captain of HMAS Gawler enquired what damage had been sustained, the response from Maryborough read: "no damage except to my underpants".^[76]

Australian sailors with a Bathurst-class corvette in the background. The RAN commissioned 56 of this class of corvettes during World War II.

War with Japan

After the Imperial Japanese Navy's attacks on the Allies in December 1941, the RAN redeployed its larger ships to home waters to protect the Australian mainland from Japanese attack, while several smaller ships remained in the Mediterranean. From 1940 onwards, there was considerable Axis naval activity in Australian waters first from German commerce raiders and submarines and later by the Imperial Japanese Navy.

Initially, RAN ships served as part of the British-Australian component of the American-British-Dutch-Australian Command (ABDACOM) naval forces or in the ANZAC Force. ABDACOM was wound up following the fall of the Netherlands East Indies and was succeeded by the South West Pacific Area (command) (SWPA). The United States Seventh Fleet was formed at Brisbane on 15 March 1943, for service in the SWPA. RAN ships in the Pacific generally served at part of Seventh Fleet taskforces.

The defence of Australian shipping

A Japanese Ko-hyoteki-class midget submarine, believed to be Midget No. 14, is raised from Sydney Harbour

In late May and early June 1942, a group of five Imperial Japanese Navy submarines made a series of attacks on Sydney and the nearby port of Newcastle. On the night of 31 May – 1 June, the submarines launched three Ko-hyoteki-class midget submarines against Allied shipping in Sydney Harbour. A torpedo intended for the cruiser USS Chicago exploded under the depot ship HMAS Kuttabul, killing 21. On 8 June, two of the submarines shelled Sydney and Newcastle, with little effect.^[80] In response, the RAN instituted convoys between Brisbane and Adelaide. All ships of over 1,200 tons and with speeds of less than 12 knots (22 km/h; 14 mph) were required to sail in convoy when travelling between cities on the east coast.^[81]

The attack on Sydney and Newcastle marked the start of a sustained Japanese submarine campaign against Australia. During 1942, Japanese submarines sank 17 ships in Australian waters, although none of these ships were sailing as part of a convoy.^[82] 16 ships were sunk in Australian waters during 1943, before the Japanese ended the campaign in July. Five of these ships were sunk while sailing in escorted convoys.^[83] The Australian naval authorities gradually dismantled the coastal convoy system between December 1943 and March 1944.^[84] By the end of the war, the RAAF and RAN had escorted over 1,100 convoys along the Australian coastline.^[4]

While the scale of the Japanese naval offensive directed against Australia was small compared to other naval campaigns of the war such as the Battle of the Atlantic, these attacks were "the most comprehensive and widespread series of offensive operations ever conducted by an enemy against Australia".^[85] Although the RAN only sank a single full-sized Japanese submarine in Australian waters (I-124 in January 1942) convoy escorts may have successfully reduced the threat to shipping in Australian waters by making it harder for Japanese submarines to carry out attacks.^[86]

Whilst escorting convoys between Australia and New Guinea, HMAS Arunta attacked and sank the Japanese Kaichu type submarine Ro-33 off Port Moresby on 24 August 1942, killing all 42 men aboard.^[87]

Loss of HMAS Canberra

American destroyers evacuating the crew of HMAS Canberra after the Battle of Savo Island

The loss of HMAS Canberra at the Battle of Savo Island in August 1942 was the largest single ship loss the RAN experienced during World War II. In the early hours of the morning of 9 August 1942, Canberra was severely damaged off Guadalcanal in a surprise attack by a powerful Japanese naval force. Canberra was hit by 24 shells in less than two minutes, with 84 of her crew killed, including Captain Frank Getting. Following an order to abandon ship, Canberra was sunk the next day by a torpedo from a US destroyer, to prevent it being captured.

The loss of Canberra, following the losses of Sydney and Perth, attracted unprecedented international attention and sympathy for the RAN. US President Franklin D. Roosevelt wished to commemorate the loss of Canberra and requested that a US heavy cruiser under construction be named Canberra. USS Canberra was launched on 19 April 1943.^[88] The British Government approved the transfer of HMS Shropshire to the RAN as a replacement, and the ship was commissioned as HMAS Shropshire on 20 April 1943.

The light cruiser HMAS Hobart showing torpedo damage inflicted by a Japanese submarine on 20 July 1943. Hobart did not return to service until December 1944.

The End of the War 1945

By the end of World War II, the RAN's combat strength numbered 150 ships with an additional 200 auxiliary craft with the service reaching its peak in June 1945, when it ranks swelled to 39,650 personnel.^[4] During the six years of war, the RAN lost three cruisers, four destroyers, two sloops, a corvette, and an auxiliary minesweeper to enemy action.^[68] Casualties included 1,740 personnel from the 19 ships sunk, and another 436 personnel killed aboard other ships or at other posts.^[4] By most measures, such losses were heavy for such a small service, representing over half its pre-war strength in ships and one-fifth in men. Against this the RAN destroyed one cruiser, an armed merchant raider, three destroyers or torpedo boats, a minesweeper, many light craft and seven submarines. It also destroyed or captured more than 150,000 tons of Axis merchant shipping and shot down more than a hundred aircraft. Although difficult to quantify the RAN also played a role in numerous other successes.^[68]

Surrender and occupation of Japan

Main article: British Commonwealth Occupation Force

30 August 1945. Yokosuka Naval Base, Tokyo Bay. Commander Yuzo Tanno hands over the keys of Yokosuka Naval Base to Captain H. J. Buchanan, Royal Australian Navy. Buchanan led the first Commonwealth party to go ashore in Japan.

Ten RAN vessels were present at the signing of the Japanese surrender in Tokyo Bay on 2 September 1945; HMA Ships Ballarat, Cessnock, Gascoyne, Hobart, Ipswich, Napier, Nizam, Pirie, Shropshire, and Warramunga.^[92] Following the surrender ceremony, the majority of the RAN vessels left Japanese waters for other duties. As part of the surrender agreement, Japan agreed to an Allied occupation and disarmament. On 17 August 1945, the Australian Government agreed to provide two cruisers and two destroyers for service with the British Commonwealth Occupation Force (BCOF). A total of 15 RAN ships served with the BCOF, the ships performed a variety of tasks but were mainly employed on the Kyushu Patrol, preventing Korean nationals from illegally entering Japan.

Australian sailors take possession of a midget submarine at a Japanese naval base near Tokyo in September 1945.

The RAN also played a role in the disarmament of Japan, assisting in the scuttling of former Imperial Japanese Navy ships, in one instance Quiberon took part in the sinking of seven submarines of Kyushu as part of Operation Bottom. When Indian and New Zealand contingents began to withdraw from the BCOF, the operation became a predominantly Australian operation. In 1948, Kure naval base was turned over to Australia, and became known as HMAS Commonwealth. When North Korea invaded South Korea on 25 June 1950, one RAN ship was on station as part of BCOF. The Australian Government immediately offered HMAS Shoalhaven for United Nations service. Eventually, all RAN ships in the area were transferred to the command of British Commonwealth Forces Korea (BCFK).^[93]

Clearing mines from Australian and New Guinean waters was another focus for the RAN in the years after the war. Minesweeping began in December 1945 and was conducted by HMAS Swan, eight Bathurst-class corvettes and several smaller craft from a base at Cairns. The work was arduous and dangerous, and HMAS Warrnambool was sunk with the loss of four men killed and another 25 wounded when she struck a mine off North Queensland on 13 September 1947. The RAN completed this task in August 1948 after sweeping 1,816 mines.^[94]

Korea

On 27 June 1950, the United Nations Security Council called on member nations to aid South Korea. On 29 June, Prime Minister Robert Menzies announced that the frigate HMAS Shoalhaven, stationed in Japan, and the destroyer HMAS Bataan, in Hong Kong, would be placed under UN command in Korea. On 1 July, one day after President Truman committed American ground forces to Korea, the first Australian operation in Korea took place; Shoalhaven escorted an American ammunition ship from Japan to Pusan.

The destroyer Warramunga was deployed in July 1950, and provided gunfire support during the X Corps landing at Wonsan in October. In December, Bataan and Warramunga assisted the mass evacuation of troops and refugees from Hungnam. The aircraft carrier Sydney was deployed to Korea between September 1951 and January 1952—the first carrier owned by a Commonwealth Dominion to see wartime service.^[96] During this time, 2,366 sorties were flown from Sydney, with only fifteen aircraft lost and three pilots killed.^[96]

Over the course of the Korean War, nine ships of the RAN participated in the naval blockade of North Korea.^[97]

Malaya

The Malayan Emergency was declared on 18 June 1948, prompted by a rise in Malayan Communist guerrillas in Malaya (later Malaysia).^[98] Australia, as a member of the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization, first deployed two RAAF squadrons to the region in 1950.^[98] In 1955, the Far East Strategic Reserve was created as a concentration of Commonwealth military forces (primarily British, New Zealand, and Australian) in Malaya for the protection of that nation from communist threats.^[98] Australia's commitment included two destroyers or frigates on station at any time, plus an annual visit by an aircraft carrier, and additional ships as needed.^[98] Training for the potentiality of war was the main occurrence for ships deployed to the Strategic Reserve, with RAN personnel gaining experience in working as part of a larger naval organisation.^[98]

The first ships of the RAN to arrive in the area were the Tribal-class destroyers Warramunga and Arunta in June 1955.^[98] Between 1955 and 1960, eleven other ships of the RAN operated with the Strategic Reserve: Anzac, Melbourne, Quadrant, Queenborough, Quiberon, Quickmatch, Sydney Tobruk,Vampire, Vendetta, and Voyager.^[98]

Indonesia

Melbourne with Vendetta, Voyager and Queenborough, circa 1962

In response to the Indonesian invasion of Borneo and Malaya in 1963, Australia increased its presence in the region. At the outbreak of hostilities, the RAN frigates Yarra and Parramatta were on duty in the area. As tension mounted, Australia increased its presence by sending Sydney, Vampire, Vendetta, Duchess, and Derwent to the area. On 19 May 1964, the 16th Minesweeping Squadron, comprising six Ton-class minesweepers, was also deployed.^[99]

On 13 December 1964, the minesweeper HMAS Teal was fired upon with automatic weapons by an unlit vessel whilst operating as part of the Singapore Strait patrol. The vessel was overpowered and arrested by Teal, following a further small arms engagement that resulted in the deaths of three Indonesian crew members. On 23 February 1965, Teal was again involved in another engagement, she detected an unlit vessel off Cape Rachado. The suspicious vessel was closed on and illuminated, and revealed nine armed men in uniform who surrendered immediately upon challenge. On 13 March 1964, HMAS Hawk became the second vessel of the 16th Minesweeping Squadron to see action, when she was fired on by an Indonesian shore battery while patrolling off Raffles Lighthouse. Eleven high-explosive rounds were fired at the ship, some landing within 200 yards (200 m) of the vessel, and Hawk withdrew from the area at speed. The following morning, Hawk intercepted a sampan with five Indonesians on board who were promptly arrested.

When Indonesian forces crossed the border into Sebatik Island, Sabah on 28 June 1965, HMAS Yarra was called on to carry out bombardments disrupting the withdrawal of the Indonesians. Yarra carried out two more bombardments of the border area on 5 and 10 July. During three runs, Yarra fired a total of 70 rounds on the enemy. On 13 August 1966, an agreement between Indonesia and Malaysia brought an end to the conflict.

Melbourne-Voyager collision

HMAS Melbourne following the collision with HMAS Voyager on 10 February 1964

During the night of 10 February 1964, the worst peacetime disaster in the RAN's history occurred when the destroyer HMAS Voyager was cut in two by the bow of the aircraft carrier HMAS Melbourne, killing 82 of the 293 men on board Voyager.^[100][101] Melbourne was conducting air group exercises off Jervis Bay with Voyager acting as the plane guard destroyer. After a series of manoeuvres to reverse the course of the ships, Voyager ended up to starboard of Melbourne, and was ordered to resume her position (behind the carrier and to port) at 20.52.^[102] Instead of turning away from Melbourne, Voyager unexpectedly turned towards the carrier, and did not alter course until it was too late.^[100][103] At 20.56, Melbourne's bow hit the destroyer just behind the bridge, and cut her in half, with the bow sinking quickly.^[104] The search for survivors went on through the night; of the 314 aboard, 14 officers, 67 sailors, and 1 civilian dockyard worker were killed, including Captain Duncan Stevens.^[100][105]

Following the collision Prime Minister Menzies ordered a Royal Commission to investigate the event.^[106] The Commissioner concluded that the collision was primarily the fault of Voyager's bridge crew not maintaining an effective lookout, but also placed blame on Melbourne's Captain John Robertson (who resigned shortly after) and two other officers for failing to alert Voyager or take effective measures to avoid collision.^[107][108] The handing of the Royal Commission was seen as poor, and after a combination of public pressure and claims that Stevens had a drinking problem, a second Royal Commission was announced: the only time two Commissions have been held for the same incident.^[109] The second Royal Commission found that Stevens was likely medically unfit for command, that some of the first Commission's conclusions were therefore incorrect, and the Melbourne officers were not at fault.^[110] The two commissions caused great anguish in the hierarchy of the RAN, which was not accustomed to such tight scrutiny, and led to the eventual dismantling of the Naval Board's isolation from the civilian world.^[108]

Vietnam War

Ships of the Royal Australian Navy were stationed on continuous operational service in Vietnam between 1965 and 1972; a total 18 ships served in Vietnam waters during the war. During this period, the navy performed a wide variety of operational tasks at sea, ashore, and in the air. The RAN's primary contribution consisted of destroyers, Fleet Air Arm personnel attached to a United States Army helicopter company and No. 9 Squadron RAAF, a Clearance Diving Team, and a logistical support force consisting of transport and escort ships. Other RAN personnel served ashore in medical teams or performed staff duties at the Australian Embassy in Saigon or the 1st Australian Task Force Headquarters at Nui Dat.

HMAS Hobart refuels from a US Navy tanker during Operation Sea Dragon off Vietnam in 1967.

The RAN did not deploy operationally until 1965, but in 1962 HMAS Vampire and HMAS Quickmatch made goodwill visits to Saigon. They were followed a year later by similar visits by HMAS Quiberon and HMAS Queenborough. In 1967, HMAS Hobart became the first RAN destroyer to be operationally deployed to Vietnam. Hobart served three tours in Vietnam from March to September in 1967, 1968, and 1970. During her operations, she fired 10,000 rounds at 1,000 shore targets and came under fire around 10 times, including on one occasion by a United States F-4 Phantom.^[111] Hobart was awarded the United States Navy Unit Commendation in recognition of her service in Vietnam, while sister ship Perth received both the United States Navy Unit Commendation and the Meritorious Unit Commendation. Clearance Diving Team 3 was awarded the US Presidential Citation, two US Navy Unit Commendations and a US Meritorius Unit Commendation. The only non US Unit to ever receive all 3 awards. After their five years of service in Vietnam, the four gunline destroyers; Perth, Brisbane, Hobart and Vendetta steamed over 397,000 miles and fired 102,546 rounds.^[112]

The aircraft carrier HMAS Sydney was converted for troopship duties in the early 1960s, and began her first voyage to Vietnam in May 1965, transporting the 1st Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment, from Sydney to Vung Tau in southern Vietnam. Sydney became known as the Vung Tau Ferry and made 25 voyages to Vietnam: carrying 16,094 troops, 5,753 deadweight tons (5,845 t) of cargo and 2,375 vehicles.^[101]

In 1969, the aircraft carrier HMAS Melbourne rammed and sank another destroyer.^[113] During the night of 2–3 June, USS Frank E. Evans was escorting the carrier during multinational wargames in the South China Sea.^[113] Ordered to the plane guard station, Evans crosses the carrier's bows and was cut in two, killing 74 United States personnel.^[114] A Joint RAN-USN Board of Inquiry was established, which found Melbourne's Captain John Stevenson and three officers from Evans at fault.^[114] Despite being cleared by a RAN court-martial, Stevenson resigned after receiving similar treatment to Robertson in the first collision.^[115] HMAS Melbourne is believed to be the only warship to sink two friendly vessels in peacetime.^[116]

In April 1971, Prime Minister John Gorton announced that Australian forces in Vietnam would be reduced. This led to the withdrawal of the clearance divers in May and the Fleet Air Arm in June. The final RAN destroyer on the gunline, Brisbane, returned to Sydney on 15 October 1971. The Whitlam government withdrew all Australian forces from and stopped military aid to South Vietnam. HMAS Jeparit returned to Sydney on 11 March 1972 and was followed the next day by HMAS Sydney. During the 10 years that the RAN was involved in the war, eight officers and sailors were killed, and another 46 were either wounded or suffered other injuries.^[112][117]

Cyclone Tracy

During the morning of 25 December 1974, Tropical Cyclone Tracy struck the city of Darwin, killing 71 people and causing $4 billion of damage (1998 A$).^[118] In response to the cyclone, the RAN embarked upon Operation Navy Help Darwin; the largest peacetime disaster relief operation in its history, involving 13 ships, 11 aircraft and some 3,000 personnel.^[119]

When Tracy struck Darwin, the RAN had a total of 351 personnel based in the city, along with four Attack-class patrol boat; the small number of men limited the capability of the RAN to render immediate assistance to the citizens of Darwin.^[120] All four patrol boats were damaged in some way: Advance and Assail were able to weather the cyclone with minor damage, but Attack was forced aground, and Arrow sank after colliding with Stokes Hill Wharf, killing two personnel.^[119] Land-based naval installations were also heavily damaged by the cyclone, Darwin Naval Headquarters was destroyed, as were large sections of the patrol boat base and the married quarters. The oil fuel supply installation and naval communications station at HMAS Coonawarra were also damaged. The initial RAN relief which was limited to search and rescue in the area of Darwin Harbour and Melville Island, which was hindered by the lack of reliable communications.^[119]

As the severity of the disaster was realised, a naval task force was established to render aid to the people of Darwin; Operation Navy Help Darwin. A general recall was issued to all personnel; volunteers from shore bases and ships unable to sail were used to replace those who could not return to their ships in time.^[119] The first RAN assets arrived in Darwin on 26 December, a HS 748 aircraft carrying blood transfusion equipment and Red Cross workers, followed shortly by another HS 748 carrying Clearance Diving Team 1 (CDT1). Ships also began departing for Darwin on 26 December: Balikpapan and Betano departed from Brisbane, Flinders sailed from Cairns, while Melbourne (with Rear Admiral Wells aboard), Brisbane, and Stuart left Sydney. The next day, Hobart, Stalwart, Supply, and Vendetta left Sydney, while Brunei and Tarakan sailed from Brisbane.^[119] The last ship, Wewak, left Brisbane on 2 January.^[119]

The first vessels, HMA Ships Brisbane and Flinders, arrived in Darwin on 31 December. Flinders surveyed the approaches to Darwin, ensuring the safety of the taskforce, while Brisbane landed working parties and established communications. The entire 13-ship task force had arrived in Darwin by 13 January 1975, bringing over 3,000 personnel.^[119] RAN personnel was primarily assigned to clear the suburbs of Nightcliff, Rapid Creek, Northern Territory, and Casuarina, while aircraft and helicopters were used to move evacuees and supplies, and CDT1 inspected ships in the harbour for damage and cleared several wharves.^[119] Vessels of the task force began to depart Darwin as early as 7 January, with HMA Ships Brisbane and Stalwart the last to depart on 31 January, after command of the relief operation was turned over to the Commandant of the Army's 7th Military District.^[119]

Pacific patrol boat program

Following the introduction of the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) the exclusive economic zone (EEZ) of many coastal nations was increased from 12 to 200 Nmi. The sudden expansion of responsibility dramatically increased the area of ocean requiring surveillance, monitoring and policing by these nations, increasing the strain on existing maritime patrol resources, and highlighting the need for countries without a maritime patrol force to obtain one, especially in the South West Pacific area.^[121]

In 1979, the Australian and New Zealand Governments, at the request of Pacific Island nations, sent defence representatives into the South-West Pacific region to assess surveillance and maritime patrol requirements. The governments of a number of the Pacific nations expressed their concern about the need for a suitable naval patrol force to meet their new surveillance requirements. The Australian government responded by creating the Defence Cooperation Project (DCP), to provide suitable patrol vessels, training and infrastructure to island nations in the region. The Pacific Patrol Boat Systems Program Office was created within the Minor War Vessels Branch of the RAN procurement organisation.^[121]

The tender for the vessels was released in August 1984, and was awarded to Australian Shipbuilding Industries Pty Ltd (now Tenix Western Australia) in September 1985. The first of ten vessels was to be delivered in early 1987. The first vessel, HMPNGS Tarangau, was officially handed over to the Papua New Guinea Defence Force on 16 May 1987. Over the course of the project the number of participating countries increased. By the end of the construction phase of the project, a total of 22 boats had been delivered to 12 countries, compared to the original order of 10 boats for 8 countries. In total, the project cost for 22 vessels and associated support was A$155.25 million.^[121]

The RAN never operated the Pacific-class patrol boat (PPB), although the project has given the RAN a number of advantages in the Pacific region. The introduction of self-reliant patrol forces throughout the region has eased the strain on Australia's own maritime patrol force. Cooperation between Australia and its Pacific neighbours has allowed for a greater allocation of RAN patrol boats to protecting Australia's maritime resources, patrolling the Sea Lines of Communication (SLOC), and conducting border protection operations. The PPB's have recently undergone a mid life refit which could potentially see them operating in the region until at least 2027.^[121]

Two-Ocean Policy

HMAS Melbourne launches a Grumman S2G Tracker, 1980

The main role of the Royal Australian Navy in the two decades following the end of Australia's involvement in the Vietnam War was supporting Australian diplomatic initiatives. In line with this goal the RAN exercised with the navies of Australia's allies and provided support to civil authorities in Australia and the South Pacific.^[122] The RAN's main military concern from the 1970s was the activities of the Soviet Navy in the Indian Ocean. These concerns lead to increased co-operation with the United States Navy and the development of the RAN's main base in Western Australia, HMAS Stirling.^[123]

During the late 1970s, the RAN replaced many of its ageing ships with modern equivalents. While it planned to purchase the British aircraft carrier HMS Invincible to replace Melbourne, Britain's offer of the carrier was withdrawn after the Falklands War. As a result, Melbourne was decommissioned without replacement in 1982 and the Fleet Air Arm retired almost all of its fixed wing aircraft on 30 June 1983.^[124]

HMAS Success refuelling HMAS Canberra in 1988

In 1987, the Hawke Government's Defence White Paper called for the RAN to become a more self-reliant two-ocean navy with major fleet bases in New South Wales and Western Australia. The plan called for the expansion of Stirling on Garden Island and Jervis Bay to accommodate an expanded RAN combat surface and submarine fleets. The plan originally called for the major combat units and submarines to be split between the two fleet bases, providing similar capabilities on both sides of the continent. The proposed Jervis Bay naval base never became a reality; Fleet Base East was built up around HMAS Kuttabul in Sydney while HMAS Stirling is home to half the surface fleet and the entire submarine fleet.

The rationale behind the policy included the possibility of savings in fuel and maintenance that would result from Indian Ocean deployments beginning their journey from Western Australia rather than New South Wales. The report also classed the Indian Ocean as an area where contingencies might arise. The new facilities would increase Australia's worth to the United States, particularly to do with maintenance of submarines. Expansion at Jervis Bay would allow intensified east coast visits by the United States Pacific Fleet, and its nuclear warship visits would not run into as much opposition as they do in Sydney and Melbourne.^[125]

The 1987 White Paper was seen by many as an attempt to strengthen Australia's relationship with the United States, which had been damaged by New Zealand's stance against nuclear weapons in its ports. In line with this policy, the RAN was structured to become more self-reliant and its activities during the late 1980s were focused on operating within Australia's local region.^[126]

The Two Ocean Policy remains in place today and is supported by the current Australian Government and the opposition. The success of the policy is especially evident at HMAS Stirling. The base is thriving and its location both in a global and local context gives it an advantage over Fleet Base East. It has been suggested that all eight Anzac class ships be relocated to Stirling, this would create an easier training environment for sailors and would lead to significant cost savings.^[127]

The Gulf Wars

HMAS Anzac and HMAS Darwin with United States and British warships in late 2002

Australia's contribution to the 1991 Gulf War centred on a Naval Task Group, initially Task Group 627.4,^[128] which formed part of the multi-national fleet in the Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman. In addition, medical teams were deployed aboard a US hospital ship and a naval clearance diving team took part in de-mining Kuwait's port facilities at the end of the war. Over the period from 6 September 1990 to 4 September 1991 the RAN deployed a total of six ships to the area: HMA Ships Adelaide, Brisbane, Darwin, Success, Sydney, and Westralia. Clearance Diving Team 3 operated in the theatre from 27 January 1991 to 10 May 1991. It was involved in mine clearing operations in Kuwait from 5 March to 19 April 1991.^[129]

After the end of the first Gulf War the Royal Australian Navy periodically deployed a ship to the Gulf or Red Sea to assist in maintaining sanctions against Iraq. Until the outbreak of the Second Gulf War the Australian naval force in the Persian Gulf continued to enforce the sanctions against Iraq. These operations were conducted by boarding parties from the RAN warships.^[130]

A sailor from HMAS Adelaide inspecting a ship in the Persian Gulf during 2004

Upon the outbreak of war, the RAN's focus shifted to supporting the coalition land forces and clearing the approaches to Iraqi ports. HMAS Anzac provided gunfire support to Royal Marines during fighting on the Al-Faw Peninsula and the Clearance Diving Team took part in clearing the approaches to Umm Qasr. Boarding operations continued during the war, and on 20 March, boarding parties from HMAS Kanimbla seized an Iraqi ship carrying 86 naval mines.^[131]

Since the end of the war the RAN has continuously maintained a frigate in the Persian Gulf to protect Iraq's oil infrastructure and participate in counter-smuggling operations. Twelve Australian sailors were deployed to Umm Qasr, Iraq between January and October 2004 to join the multi-national training team working with the Iraqi Coastal Defense Force.^[132] The RAN has also assumed command of coalition forces in the Persian Gulf on two occasions; Combined Task Force 58 in 2005^[133] and Combined Task Force 158 in 2006.^[134]

HMAS Westralia fire

On 5 May 1998, a fire broke out onboard HMAS Westralia while off the Western Australia coast. The fire was caused by the rupture of a flexible fuel line (one of a number used to replace rigid hoses) on cylinder number nine, starboard engine. This sprayed diesel fuel onto a hot indicator cock, which ignited a spray fire, resulting in the deaths of four crew. Following the fire, the Australian Government and the RAN began a major investigation known as the Westralia Board of Inquiry. The enquiry found that the RAN and the contractor Australian Defence Industries (ADI) did not critically examine their course of action and that key personnel in both the RAN and the contractor were insufficiently trained and qualified. The inquiry also found that the hoses were not properly designed and were unfit for the intended purpose.^[135] In 2005, ADI was fined $75,000 for failing to provide a safe workplace. Seven sailors who were severely traumatised by the fire have also sued ADI and subcontractor Jetrock. In August 2006, the Australian Government decided to accept liability after it reached settlement with the ADI and Jetrock. The seven sailors stand to receive compensation totalling up to $10 million.^[136]

East Timor

During the Australian-led United Nations peacekeeping mission to East Timor in 1999 known as INTERFET, the RAN deployed a total of 16 ships to the mission: HMA Ships Adelaide, Anzac, Balikpapan, Brunei, Darwin, Farncomb, Jervis Bay, Labuan, Success, Sydney, Tarakan, Tobruk, Waller, Westralia, Newcastle and Melbourne.^[137] The RAN played a vital role in transporting troops and providing protection to transports and were vital to the success of INTERFET.

The RAN returned to East Timor in 2006 under Operation Astute the United Nations-authorised, Australian-led military deployment to East Timor to quell unrest and return stability during the 2006 East Timor crisis. The Royal Australian Navy deployed the Amphibious Ready Group, including the ships; Kanimbla, Manoora, Tobruk (until approximately 8 June), Balikpapan, Tarakan and Success (until 28 May). The RAN also deployed the Adelaide-class frigate HMAS Adelaide (until 28 May). The Fleet Air Arm contributed one S-70B-2 Seahawk helicopter from 816 Squadron RAN (until 28 May) and two Sea King helicopters from 817 Squadron RAN. The Royal Australian Navy force committed to Operation Astute is apparently the largest amphibious task force in the navy's history.^[138]

Solomon Islands

On 24 July 2003, HMAS Manoora arrived off Honiara, marking the beginning of Operation Anode, Australia's contribution to the Regional Assistance Mission to the Solomon Islands (RAMSI). The deployment of a 2,200 strong multinational force followed several years of unrest in the Solomon Islands. Manoora was soon joined by HMA Ships Hawkesbury, Labuan, Wewak and Whyalla. Following the initial deployment, two vessels were generally kept on station in the area. By the time the RAN deployment ended, 19 Australian warships had taken part. The last ship to leave was Fremantle, which sailed home in October 2004.^[139]

Operation Anode was not the first time units of the RAN had been deployed to the Solomon Islands; Anode was unique in that the navy's primary role was to support and facilitate the work of the Participating Police Force (PPF). Moreover, along with being the first time the RAN had supported a police-led mission,^[140]

Fiji

On 2 November 2006, in response to the Fijian military threats to overthrow the Fijian Government, the Australian government began Operation Quickstep by deploying military resources to support Australian citizens in Fiji in the event of a coup d'état. The contribution from the RAN was the deployment of three vessels (Kanimbla, Newcastle, and Success) to international waters south of Fiji; with the mission to evacuate the estimated 7,000 Australian citizens present in Fiji if the need arose.^[141] Along with the three vessels a detachment of the Special Air Service Regiment (SASR), helicopters from the 171st Aviation Squadron, and an evacuation team were also deployed.^[142]

On 29 November 2006, an Australian Army S-70A Black Hawk helicopter operating from Kanimbla, and carrying ten Army personnel on board, crashed whilst attempting to land on the ship's deck, killing 1 person, injuring 7 more and leaving one missing (later confirmed dead).^[143] Melville arrived on task the morning of 15 December 2006, equipped with a Towed Pinger Locating Drone supplied from the United States Navy set about locating the downed Black Hawk. Melville detected the locator beacon during its first pass over the crash site and pinpointed its exact location in subsequent passes. The helicopter was sitting in around 2900 metres of water.^[144]

The coup took place on 5 December, but was bloodless and almost completely without violence. The evacuation of Australians was deemed unnecessary, and vessels of the task force began arriving back in Australia on 17 December, with Kanimbla docking in Townsville, and both Newcastle and Success returning to Sydney.^[145] Melville returned to Australia in late December. The RAN decided to attempt to recover the downed Black Hawk and identified the United States Navy Supervisor of Salvage (SUPSALV) as the preferred organisation.^[144] MV Seahorse Standard recovered the remains of Trooper Joshua Porter on 5 March and the Blackhawk helicopter on 9 March, with the assistance of specialist equipment provided by the SUPSALV team. The soldier's body was repatriated on 13 March, escorted by members of the SASR. Seahorse Standard arrived in Australia with the aircraft wreckage at the end of March. The wreckage would become evidence in the Board of Inquiry into the crash.^[146]