Manjeri armed struggle

In 1896, many kudiyans (tenants) became landless in Chembrassery in one day from land that was under the people of the Manjeri kovilakam through eviction. Hundreds of those who objected this eviction took control of assets associated with the Manjeri kovilakam. These people fought against the British that came to help the kovilakam. Variamkunnath Kunjahammad Haji played a leadership role in this fight. It was the first battle that he participated. Then he was 20 years old. 94 people got killed on the bjectors' side. The British force left mistaking all the objectors were killed. But some did not die. Variamkunnath Kunnahammad Haji was one of those who didn't got killed.^[40][41]

Self-imposed exile

Knowing he has not been killed in the Manjeri armed struggle, Inspector Anakayam Chekkutty tried to charge him in the case. But he was saved by some help.

Around 1899, Inspector Chekkutty decided to arrest Variamkunnath Kunjahammad Haji anyway to exile. So some decided to send Haji to Mecca in the name of Hajj to solve the problem. Some forced him to flee to evade arrest. So he exiled himself for the first time.^[42] And he spent five years in Mecca.^[43]

He went to Bombay and learned Urdu, Hindi and English and conducted business there. Next year he went to Mecca and performed Hajj. In 1905 he returned to Malabar.^[44]

He made few more trips to Mecca later. He came to Malabar after his last trip to Mecca, in 1914.^[45]

Malabar Kudiyan Sangham

M. P. Narayana Menon formed Malabar Kudiyan Sangham in 1920. M. P. Narayana Menon dissolved 'Kudiyan Sankadanivarana Sangham', a body he had formed to redress the grievances of kudiyans and whose activities were joined with those of the Congress,^[46][47] in the newly formed Malabar Kudiyan Sangham. Many branches were formed in different taluks. Because of these kudiyan movements, Mappilas^{[Note 1]} and lower caste people became attracted to the Congress.^[48][49]

Congress conference at Manjeri

The fifth Malabar District Political Conference was held at Manjeri 28–29 April 1920.^[50] The Manjeri Congress conference held 28–29 April 1920 was a huge victory for Mappilas, lower caste people and peasants. In this conference a motion supporting, non-violent non-cooperation in case the British government decides Khilafat question^[51] contrary to the Muslims' request and faith, was passed with a huge majority. Annie Basant had said though the British is wrong in the matter of Khilafat, non-cooperation is not right. The second motion supporting the Montagu–Chelmsford Reforms which Annie Basant presented got defeated through voting with a huge majority. Annie Basant walked out^[50] of the conference. Later, she resigned from the Congress. The third one was the most revolutionary. The third motion was for the relief of peasants and reform in law related to land. That too was passed with a great majority. It was the first day people saw the voice of the poor peasants get a victory in a Congress conference.^[52][53]

Discontent of Jenmis and chiefs

With the Manjeri Congress Conference, Jenmis and chiefs almost lost interest in freedom. What seen next was Nilambur Thamburam and the like who organised the Manjeri Congress Conference turning against the Khilafat-Non-cooperation movement. M. P. Narayana Menon says Jenmis and prominent Congress leaders in Malabar expressed concern about this organised activity of Mappilas.^[54][55]

Spread of Congress

With the Manjeri Congress Conference, Congress got established in Eranad.^[55] This conference helped the activities of the Congress to spread to the rural areas of Malabar.^[55]

Congress and Khilafat Movement

Gandhiji was invited to the Delhi Khilafat Conference in April 1919. In that conference, Gandhi declared the full support of the Congress to the Khilafat Movement.^[56]

Non-cooperation movement

The non-cooperation movement spread like a wildfire in Malabar with the coming of Mahatma Gandhi and Moulana Shoukathali as part of the Khilafat-Congress non-cooperation movement in Kozhikode. On 20 August 1920 both of them got a huge reception at the Kozhikode beach.^[57]

Ali Musliyar and protest

After the conference, Ali Musliyar was asked to join the movement. Though he was not ready at first he agreed to co-operate. He became the vice president of the Thirurangadi Khilafat committee. With his entrance to the protest, Congress-Khilafat committees were formed all over Malabar. M. P. Narayana Menon's Kudiyan Sanghams dissolved in Khilafat committees. Soon Congress-Khilafat committees in Malabar became more strengthened as compared to other districts in Madras Presidency. Many resigned their jobs. Advocates left courts. Several removed titles given by the British. Courts and schools were boycotted. Anyway the Khilafat-Congress non-cooperation struggle grew as a threat to the authority.^[58]

Crackdown on protest

At the time the collector of Malabar was E. F. Thomas. What the Hitchcock-Thomas group did on 5 February 1921 was to ban meetings in Eranad and Valluvanad, and speeches by certain people (inuding Variamkunnath Kunjahammad Haji). Consequently, four arrests were made when Congress-Khilafat leader Yakoob Hasan came to Kozhikode. To protest against this move, protests, including meetings and hartals, were organized in several places. But the protest in Thrissur became a problem.^[59][60]

Problem in Thrissur

Hindu-Muslim unity and victory procession

To counter the attacks unleashed in the loyalty procession, Congress, under the leadership of Thrissur Congress leader Dr. A. R. Menon, sought the help of Mappilas of Eranad. Thus 2000 Mappilas under the leadership of Vadakkuveettil Mammad reached Thrissur by train. There were Hindu TTRs who did not ask train tickets from these Mappilas. These Mappilas took out a march shaking Thrissur town on 2 March 1921. Seeing the serious situation, Divan and President reached the place and invited people from both sides and the problem was solved. As a result, Hindus and Muslims made a victory procession.^[61]

Divide and rule policy

The trick used by the British to divide and rule was to constantly target one group from the people. This trick would be much to make a divide among them.^[62][63]

Undeclared police raj

Mappilas had taken out a march of 2000 people in Thrissur on 2 March 1921, followed by a victory procession by Hindus and Muslims. The police in Malabar began to threaten the Khilafat volunteers and leaders in a particular manner in important centres and, to visit the prominent people loyal to the British and receive food and others from there, each day. By 15 March 1921 an undeclared police raj came into effect. The Mappilas began to be charged with cases and arrested in a huge number.^[64] So many false cases were charged against them such as theft, rape. Even a funny charge of stealing a pen, that too by two persons, was made against Mappilas. There was an instance of charging a case and registering arrest even for going to the police station wearing a Khilafat cap. These were reported in the British newspaper Madras Daily, newspapers Mithavadi, The Muslim, and Jenmis' newspapers, Kerala Pathrika, Yogakshemam.^[65] All were false cases. Many were arrested in such false cases. All those arrested were cruelly tortured.^[66]

Declared police raj

By the end of May, with canes, guns and spears on the guns, a declared police raj came into effect under the Hichkock-Thomas-Amu leadership. Cruel torture became a continuous story. Even the house and household of Mappilas were attacked.^[67]

Destruction of Hindu-Muslim unity

Because several cases were of stealing things of high caste Hindus, Mappilas began to hate them. Lower caste people isolated themselves from Muslims who are constantly being targeted, due to fear. Cracks began to appear in the unity created by Congress-Khilafat committees. The Kudiyan collective and the Khiafat collective began to collapse. People working under Jenmis began to be tortured more than earlier. The condition of workers of Eaton, the manager of Kerala estate, was worse than that of the cattle. Congress leaders except M. P. Narayana Menon apparently abandoned Mappilas.^[68][69]

Varnashrama system of Congress organisational structure and abandoning of Khilafat members

Knap, the Special Commission, came to Kozhikode on 14 August 1921. Knap gave permission to search for weapons in houses of some places.^[70] Thomas' order to relocate families of the British officers to Kozhikode made doubt among people. They understood all Mappilas, their houses and relatives are going to be attacked for no reason. Congress leaders cruelly abandoned Khilafat movement members in this turbulent time. A handful of persons including M. P. Narayana Menon, Kattilasseri and Muhammad Abdulrahman became courageous to go to people. Though Kattilasseri and Abdulrahman Sahib were Congress workers, they did not have much influence in the Congress since the organisational structure inside the Congress was the reflection of varnashrama system. Generally they lost trust in the Congress. They had trust only in M. P. Narayana Menon. M. P. Narayana Menon understood the only way to stop the upcoming big torture is stopping the protest. He asked the national leaders to stop the protest. Though, through a statement, the message to stop the protest could have been conveyed within 24 hours where newspapers worked well, no such a statement was made.^[71]

Arrest warrants

On 19 August 1921 a group of police including Hitchcock and Thomas left for Thirurangadi. They had arrest warrants for 24 people including Ali Musliyar prepared by Hitchcock and signed by Thomas with them. It is said Variamkunnath Kunjahammad Haji's was in the list but removed because of Variamkunnath Kunjahammad Haji's connection with Hitchcock and SI Ramanathayyar.^[72]

Search for Ali Musliyar

The people of Thomas-Hitchcock unleashed attacks widely in Thirurangadi, searching for Ali Musliyar. At this time Ali Musliyar was in a secret place in Thirurangadi discussing with other leaders of the protest about how to respond to the British. The meeting reached a decision to stop protesting for the time being in the situation the Congress abandoned them and to entrust Ali Musiyar to tell the Collector that they are stopping the protest and to demand the release of those arrested.^[73]

Before declaration of independent country

Intense war was fought 21–24 August 1921 after suppressing the Thirurangadi firing on 20 August 1921. By the night of the 24 August the control of 200 villages of Eranad, Valluvanad Ponnani, Kozhikode taluks were taken over by the revolutionaries from the British. On the night of 24 August 1921 leaders including Variyamkunnan and Ali Musliyar held a meeting (several things that are to be decided had been decided in the Thekkekalam meeting).^[83]

In the meeting Variyamkunnan divided his new country into four divisions. Each was given to each leader. The Mannarkad division was entrusted with Chembresseri Thangal; Thirurangadi, Ali Musliyar; Valluvanad, Kumarambathur Seethi Koya Thangal; Pookottur, Kunjithangal. Variamkunnan retained Nilambur, Pandallur, Pandikkad and Thuvvur under his control. Under them each region was given a smaller leader. Each region had a military head. These "lieutenants" had the duty of recruiting soldiers, training them, and procurement of weapons. That was Lavakkutty and Kunjalavi in Thirurangadi. In that of Chembresseri Thangal it was Aamakundan; Seeethi Koya Thangal, Thaliyil Unnenkutty Haji. In Pookottur it was Vadakkuveettil Manmad. In that of Variamkunnan, it was Naik Chekkutti (in the battles directly led by Variamkunnan, Variyamkunnan himself was the commander). Rulers in all divisions were under Variamkunnan. He was above them all.^[83][84][85]

The meeting decided to declare in Manjeri the formation of a new independent country. The meeting wound up deciding to announce the state declaration at Manjeri.^[83][86]

Malayala Rajyam

Variyankunnath Kunjahammad Haji established an independent state^[16] as part of the Indian independence movement^[87] and Khilafat movement on 25 August 1921. He made the state declaration in the Manjeri proclamation on 25 August 1921. Its name was Malayala Rajyam.^{[88][89][90][91]} The rebels used British titles such as 'Assistant Inspector', 'Colonel', 'Collector', 'Governor', 'Viceroy' and (less conclusively) 'King'.^[92] Because the Khilafat movement in the region, utilised by Variyankunnath, controlled the parallel government it was called Khilafat raj.^[93][94] It had its own passport, currency, and separate system of taxation.^[95] Variyankunnath abolished the Jenmi system.^[95] He set up military^[96] and several battles were fought against the British.

In those days, the police would write a statement and make the prisoner sign it. Otherwise, a statement would be written, getting the signature beforehand.^[97] Even in the statement of Variyankunnath written by R. H. Hitchcock, Variyankunnath said, "There is no Khilafat here. Khilafat is a Turkey subject."^[98]

Madhavan Nair says from beginning to end, Variyankunnath's enemies were the Government and those aiding the Government. Because no one got opportunity to aid the Government in the beginning of the revolt, the target of his warpath was the police and military then.^[99]

R. H. Hitchcock says Variyankunnath was only against the Hindus who supported the Government.^[100][101]

Ali Musliyar and Variyankunnath Kunjahammad Haji made use of their influence to prevent the forcible conversion. As leaders they followed a secular approach^[102]

Rebels like Kunjahammad Haji tried to ensure that the Hindus are not assaulted or subject to looting. They punished rioters who assaulted Hindus. Haji, who did not show special consideration to the Mappilas, killed several Mappilas who supported the government or gave them other type of punishments.^[103]

Chekutty murder

Several British loyalist Mappilas had taken refuge in the Khan Bahadur Chekutty's house. With them was CI Mangatt Narayana Menon. Twenty four people including Kunjahammad Haji went to the Chekutty's house; they had guns with them. Naik Haidru killed Chekutty by shooting. As the shooting happened other Adhikaris and CI Narayana Menon escaped through the side of the kitchen. Naik Thami read a charge sheet near the fallen Chekutty which took forty minutes to finish. This charge sheet contained 300 "crimes". Chekutty, as a servant of the colonial government, had caused so much trouble to ordinary people in Eranad. After the reading of the crimes, Kunjahammad Haji decapitated Chekutty. Though several historians have recorded that the Chekutty's severed head was stuck to a spear and brought to the place of the Manjeri proclamation, K. K. Abdul Kareem says that this is not correct, and that the severed head was thrown to a thicket in the Chekutty's own plot.^[104]

Anyway, the Chekutty murder shocked everyone in Ernad. Those who heard about the murder, which people had thought unusual and impossible, rushed to Anakkayam and Manjeri. Thus the crossroad joining four main roads in Manjeri was crowded with people for Kunjahammad Haji's historic declaration.^[105]

Namboothiri bank

An important incident during the peak of the war was the attempt by the chottu pattalam to loot the Namboothiri bank in Manjeri, which was well known in the Malabar region, and run by Pulloor Kuttyanikkad Manakkal Damodaran Namboothiri. The action taken by Kunjahammad Haji against this is one of the best examples of his skill of administration. There was jewellery worth millions of rupees belonging to people including ordinary peasants in the bank. The first approach by Namboothiri knowing of the loot was to inform Kunjahammad Haji. On learning about the loot, without sparing a minute, Kunjahammad Haji set out with a few followers at midnight itself. On seeing Kunjahammad Haji, the looters escaped running. Kunjahammad Haji decided to guard the bank since all what was in the bank was of the public, several of them ordinary peasants. He took charge of protection on 24 August 1921. He entrusted some of his soldiers to stand guard over the bank and some others to capture the looters. Kunjahammad Haji fully examined the bank. As Shankunni Nair informed that the unrecorded jewellery in the shelf was from the Namboothiri's house, soon it was sent to Anakkayam. After that he made a proclamation to take back the pledged articles from the bank giving the money immediately. Because of suddenness several did not have money. He ordered, such people who did not have money, should give whatever they have, to take back the pledged articles; but their account should be kept. This was done by the bank clerk Shankunni Nair and Kapad Krishnan Nair. Each day Shankunni Nair would go to Anakkayam closing the bank in the evening. On arrival by Shankunni Nair with the key in the morning, Kunjahammad Haji would open the bank. Appukuttan, the son of Namboothiri, said to AK Kodoor that in those days Kunjahammad Haji would stay on the bank building itself.^[106]

R. H. Hitchcock says Kunjahammad Haji did not loot the bank.^[107]

Number of Hindus killed and forcibly converted

There were different reports about the number of forced conversions with report of the Congress saying that even the forced conversions are not even more than three in number^[108] while the District Magistrate of Malabar, in response for demanding safe estimate of forced conversions by the Secretary of State, says about just around 180 cases of conversion about which reliable information received.^[109][110]

Sumit Sarkar in Modern India quotes an Arya Samaj source that claimed about 600 Hindus were killed and 2,500 forcibly converted during the rebellion.^{[111][Note 2]} The British forces had killed a group of lower caste Hindus mistaking them for Mappilas because they used to shave the head like Mappilas.^[112]

Variankunnath said in a cablegram reported on 7 December 1921 in two American newspapers that the reported a few cases of conversion (not forced conversion or murder in the verbatim sentence) of Hindus were part of the British plot. He also blamed British spies and agents for this and claimed to have killed the British spies and agents.^[113]

There are no reports of lower caste Hindus being forcibly converted to Islam during the rebellion. Most of such stories of forced conversions are related to high caste Hindus.^[114]

The stories of forced conversion of Hindus to Islam during the rebellion by Mappilas are not reliable.^[115][116] It is claimed that no one came forward claiming to be the descendants of those who were subject to such forced conversions even 97 years after the rebellion which in turn shows forced conversions are not true.^[117]

Leadership

It was after the Thirurangadi firing incident that Haji took the leadership of the rebellion against the British in a moment after six or seven years of silence. He had come to Malabar after his last trip to Mecca; in 1914.^[77][78][80]

Military

His military included a group of previous members of the military that fought in the First World War. They had weapons those were seized and those were manufactured after the rebellion started.^[128] Most of his military were Khilafat Movement supporters.^[129] His forces against the British included uniformed members and a certain number of ex-sepoys.^[130]

Escape of adversaries

As the rebellion helmed by the Haji and others began to spread across the Ernad and Valluvanad taluks of erstwhile Malabar district, British officers and the local police loyal to them escaped^[131] From the first day of war those fled to Kozhikode from Eranad include some pro-British Mappilas besides Jenmis.^[132] In South Malabar, especially Walluvanad, many Hindus along with Muslims attacked government institutions. At this time even some Nambudiris were with Khilafat Movement supporters.^[133]

Plot by British loyalists

From the first day of war, looting also started. The looters included even CI Narayana Menon who participated in the looting wearing Mappila dress. CI Narayana Menon used criminals and prisoners to loot. One of the main looters of Thirurangadi was Kizhakan Mukari who was pretending as Variamkunnath. Fifteen looters including Mukhari was caught on very 21 August 1921. All of them belonged to the chottu pattalam (the private army of chiefstains who were conducive for the British government) of Khan Bahadur-Khan Sahibs. Those who tried to loot the Namboothiri Bank were Mappilas loyal to the British^[134][135] Thus the loot was carried out by those who are loyal to the British.^[136] The main people who tried to thwart the war against the British were the Mappilas loyal to the British. Intervention by Ali Musliyar and Variamkunnan stopped their attempt to an extent.^[137][138]

Manjeri proclamation

Around 25 August 1921 he declared an independent state in Manjeri ^[139][140] with Haji its undisputed ruler.^[131] Later on its own passport, currency, and its own system of taxation were introduced^[140] Even in the Manjeri proclamation which was made within few days after the rebellion started he said he had known it was propagated in the outside world that it was a war between the Muslims and Hindus. He also blamed Mappilas loyal to the British similar to Khan Bahadur Chekkutti and Jenmis for propagating this. He also said he did not intent to make it a Muslims' only country.^[141][142]

Battle of Pookottur

Variamkunnath Kunjahammad Haji came to Pookottur. An armed force was set up, to attack the British force at Pookottur, on their way to rescue the British military personnel stuck in the area where the revolution took place.^[143] And the Battle of Pookottur was fought on 26 August 1921.^[144][145]

Surrender of Ali Musliyar

On 30 August 1921 a firing occurred at the Thirurangadi mosque in which 114 people including Ali Musliyar were present between the British force and those inside the mosque. Huge casualties occurred on both sides.^[146][147] Some people managed to escape and ran to Variamkunnath Kunjahammad Haji.^[146][147] Ali Musliyar and 39 followers surrendered on 31 August 1921 when he became certain that the mosque would be destroyed. Immediately after this Variamkunnath Kunjahammad Haji asked his soldiers to move to forests.^[148][149]

British martial law

Immediately after the surrender of Ali Musliyar, Variamkunnath Kunjahammad Haji had asked his forces to move to forests. On 1 September 1921 martial law was declared specifically targeting Mappilas by the British. Those who would allow Mappillas who come from certain area to live were to be punished and in case Mappillas come to live nearby, it was to be reported to the nearest police station to avoid punishment. Because of the law Mappilas could not go outside or shops or mosques. But Mappilas loyal to the British got the pass so that they could move freely.^[150]

Massacres of Mappilas

Even a vast number of Mappilas who did not take part in any protest were also tortured. The British conducted a series of massacres against Muslims, in several places. Women were raped. Mappilas' houses were burnt. On 2 September 1921 the British force which arrived at Manjeri attacked all Mappila houses. Then came an order from the British to shoot all Mappillas seen outside. A group of lower caste Hindus would shave their head like Mappilas. So even many lower caste Hindus as well as Mappillas were killed because of this.^[151]

Divide and rule policy

Some Jenmis betrayed Mappilas. Under the pretext of revenge, militant employees of, the Mappilas loyal to the British, unleashed cruelty. They looted houses. Some ordinary Mapilas joined them for vengeance thereby causing the goal of Mappillas loyal to the British, to destroy Hindu-Muslim unity, to be fulfilled. Hindu-Muslim enmity grew. This was part of divide and rule policy of the British. They propagated it was a Hindu-Muslim riot through newspapers.^[152] All this happed after martial law was declared by the British. And the British brought almost all area under their control.^[153][154]

Guerrilla warfare

On 13 September 1921 guerrilla warfare was started by Variyankunnath Kunjahammad Haji. They carried out guerrilla warfare with separate small groups of 50–500 people. They began to seize the food for the British force. The British would not succeed in the war.^[155][156]

Martial law and passport

On 16 September 1921 he declared martial law in Nalambur. As per the martial law orders a pass was required to leave the area under his control. Moreover, the British and people loyal to the British were not allowed to come outside after afternoon; if seen violating they may be fired at.^[157][158] He issued passports^[159] for that purpose.^[160] With his martial law the people denied freedom to move were the people loyal to the British.^[161] The most important thing he did after declaring martial law was punishing those who helped the British and carried out the riot.^[162]

Coming of Gurkhas

From 12 October 1921 the force including the Gurkhas, Chins and Kachins came to Malabar. Important reason for the failure of the First War of Independence was the Gurkhas. They were more interested in conducting massacres of ordinary people than fighting war directly.^[163] The Mappilas were becoming unsuccessful in the fight while the number of the Gurkhas was more in number and with so many modern weapons.^[164][165]

Battle of Areekode

There were six or seven people who left from the Variamkunnan's movement.They made some violence in Areekode.Variamkunnan restored peace there. Knowing this, force from the British side reached there and made a fight. In the fight seventeen people from the Variamkunnan's force and as per the witnesses all from the British side got killed. Later the Gurkhas threw bomb on the Variamkunnan's force who were hiding in a thicket and a large number of people got killed.^[166][167]

Battle of Pandikkad

Battle of Pandikkad
Part of the Malabar rebellion, the Khilafat Movement and Indian independence movement
South Malabar in 1921; areas in red show taluks affected by the 1921 rebellion
Date 14 November 1921 Location Pandikkad, Malabar district, British India Result Revolutionary victory
Belligerents
British government	Mappila rebels
Commanders and leaders
Averell  †
Strength
150–300	2000 (400 of whom barged into the chandappura)
Casualties and losses
75–120	54 (as per the British government)

Variyamkunnan kept knowing about the increasing attacks of the Gurkhas : that the Gurkhas molesting the women and killing the children in his country. He decided to check their activity. Thus the historic Pandikkad battle was fought on 14 November 1921 in a pre-emptive attack, leading to the death of 75–120 Gurkhas. The Pandikkad battle is one of the examples of how the British tried to create a false narrative.^[168]

At the beginning of November the army had reached Pandikkad from different places in 61 trucks. They included Gurkhas, Sikhs, local seypoys. The 2/8th Gurkha rifles camp was in the then Pandikkad chandappura (a kind of marketplace) near a paddy field on the Perinthalmanna road. Their head was Captain Averell. This chandappura belonged to British loyalist Mappila, Kudaliyil Moosakutty. The place was under the rule of Variyamkunnath though there were a police station and an army camp.^[169]

Variyamkunnan decided to kill the Gurkhas by attacking the chandappura. Thus on 13 November 1921, 2000 people reached under the leadership of Variamkunnan, Chembrasseri Ibmichi Koya Thangal and Mukri Ahamad. Variamkunnan had given them special training for two days, in Chembrasseri, Karuvaarakkund and Kheezhaattur. Around 5 am 400 people from them barged into the chandappura by knocking the mud wall down, saying takbir.^[170][171] According to Hitchcock there were 150 Gurkhas in the camp but Manji Ayamutti, who participated in the battle, in an interview given to A. K. Kodoor, says there were 300 of them.^[172] The revolutionaries began to cut apart them before they could do anything. Even some Gurkhas died in the sleep. Even some Gurkhas fought between themselves losing mental balance. Soon regained mental balance, the Gurkhas fought maximum using the hand bomb and a Lewis gun. By that time several Gurkhas had died. The Gurkhas tried their level best to shield Averell. However a group of 5 people killed Averell, who was in a special position, after hacking the Gurkhas aside. Like Lancaster, Eaton and Harvey the death of Averell was also an event of great loss for the British.^[173]

The Pandikkad battle caused great humiliation for the British. To cover up the humiliation they falsely lowered casualtis on the British side and falsely claimed victory. They released the false report that the casualties on the side of revolutionaries was 54 and 4 on the other; on a war footing as ever before. But M. P. S. Menon says 75 Gurkhas had been killed in the battle. Manji Ayamutti who participated in the battle says 120 Gurkhas had been killed. During the Pandikkad battle, fighting took place outside of the camp also. The revolutionaries killed the Pandikkad post master and two government party people. Though the house of Moosa Kutty was rounded up, he had left.^[174]

Genocide of Mappilas

Again a great series of massacres were unleashed against innocent Mappilas. There was no a day without the massacre of 200–300 Mappilas. This led to weakening of the fight against the British forces and the Mappila fighters started to surrender.^[175][176]

The British military massacred thousands of Mappilas, who were hiding in forests, hills and uninhabited houses. They killed hundreds of Mappila women and children. They raped helpless Mappila women. They set Mappila houses on fire.^[177] The British government through a proclamation of order restricted mobility of Mappilla women and children. So they were compelled to remain in the rebel areas fearing the police and military attack, suffering poverty. These sufferings were unknown to the outside world due to prohibition orders in these riot stricken areas.^[178]

Some other battles

Surrender of Haji's soldiers and massacre of Mappilas

To cover up the humiliation caused by the lose in the Pandikkad battle, the Gurkhas had again, as they did before, targeted those who did not take part in any part of the war. This was the regular plot of the British : the act of murdering the poor people when not possible to win over the revolutionaries by fighting thereby causing them to surrender by instilling the sense of guilt. On the other hand, the moral revolutionaries would not attack none other than the military personnel. In Karuvarakund, Thuvvur, Konnara, Cheroor, the East Kozhikode region and Pandikkad the British army did inexplicable atrocities. This caused the Mappila fighters to surrender en masse.^[181] This was the main cause for the rebellion to cease. This led to lose of control over several regions from the hands of revolutionaries.^[175]

Superintendent Amu in an interview given to Moyyarath Sankaran, says it became a normal thing that the White military personnel, the Gurkhas and Malabar Special Police kill the Mappilas without taking the cognisance of the party the victim belonged to. They killed innumerable number of women and children by using the bayonet. Thus there was not a day without the massacre of 200–300 Mappilas. In short they lost all means of peace; the opposition by Mappilas began to decline; they also started to surrender.^[175][182]

The move by the British government to attack women, children and the elderly using the Gurkhas and Kachins, thereby forcing the rebels depressing mentally to surrender was actually the cause for the failure of rebels in the war. The revolutionaries were distressed that the innocent get killed because the revolutionaries themselves do not surrender. This was a plot of Hitchcock and Humphries knowing the martyrdom culture of Mappillas to defeat it. This plan devised, understanding it is not possible to win over fighting those who set out wishing death, helped the British win in the 1921 war. British officials said they attained the expected goal about this.^[183] By first weeks of December 27000 revolutionaries had surrendered this way, says M. P. S. Menon.^[184] In short it was not the might of the celebrated British elite army, but 'psychological war' that destroyed the Variyankunnath Kunjahammad Haji's military and the parallel government.^[185][186]

Karuvarakund meeting

To avoid the genocide of the innocent, people including the leaders began to think of surrendering. Chembrasseri Thangal, Seethi Koya Thangal and Unneen Kutty Haji suggested surrender. Though it shocked Variamkunnath, he did not express it.^[187][188]

Disbandment of military

Variyamkunnath disbanded the army after he could not make the military operation at Palemad. He could not move to Palemad because he was surrounded by the British force. It is said that 25000 of Variamkunnan's forces had reached Palemad on 18 December 1921.^[189][190]

Surrender of leaders

Leaders Chembrasseri Thangal and Seethi Koya Thangal surrendered.^[191] Chembrassery Thangal's right hand Unneen Kutty Haji and his 450 followers surrendered. Thus a huge number of surrenders took place this time.^[192]

Capture of Variyamkunnath

On 5 January 1922, through a planned operation, Variyamkunnath was captured.Variyamkunnath wrestled for half an hour and he was chained.^[193]

Destroying of evidence

The British burned his body and all records related to his rule .They destroyed all records through raids in all houses and by offering rewards.^[194][195]

Last wish

When asked about his last wish by Humphreys he said shooting should be from the front with the eyes are unfolded and hands are free. His last wish was accepted by Humphreys.^[196][197]

Publicising British plot

Variamkunnath Kunjahammed Haji said, in a cablegram received by the Friends of Freedom for India, the reported forced conversion of many Hindus to Mohammadanism and killing others were by the British agents and spies. He also claimed to have killed theses British spies and agents. This was published in two American newspapers on 7 December 1921.^[199][200] Variamkunnath Kunjahammad Haji sent a letter to The Hindu claiming that the forced conversion of Hindus was done by the Government Party and Reserve Policemen in mufti mingling themselves with the rebels (masquerading as rebels.)^[201]

Execution of miscreants

He was of the opinion that the reported forced conversions (though there is no forced conversion or murder of Hindus in the verbatim sentence in the message sent by Variamkunnan to the Friends of Freedom for India but there is mention about a few cases of conversion in the verbatim sentence) during the Malabar rebellion were done by vandals of the Government Party and Reserve Policemen in mufti mingling themselves with the rebels (masquerading as rebels.)^{[202][203][204]} He said in a cablegram to have put the British agents and spies joined his forces as patriots only to discredit his soldiers to death, after the report of alleged forced conversion of Hindus to Mohammedanism and killing the rest of the Hindus.^[32]

Punishing rioters

The most important thing he did after declaring martial law was punishing those who helped the British and carried out the riot.^[162]

Thekkekalam meeting

To thwart the attempt of Mappilas loyal to the British, Variamkunnath Kunnahammad Haji, on the second day of the war started, organised the Thekkekalam meeting. In this meeting, even the first decision taken was that any activity that could cause a different opinion about from Hindus shall not happen.^[205]

Exposing compulsory military service

In a letter written to The Hindu, Variyamkunnath Kunjahammad Haji exposed the attempt for compulsory military service by the British. In the letter, he said the following.

"The Hindus are compulsorily impressed for military service. Therefore, several Hindus seek protection in my Hill. Several Moplahs, too, have sought my protection. Now the chief military commander [of the government] is causing Hindus to evacuate from these Taluks. Innocent women and children of Islam, who have done nothing and possess nothing, are not permitted to leave the place."

^[206]

Adequate security to people of other faiths

Haji gave orders to his followers that people of other faiths were to be given adequate security and not be subjected to torture. But at the same time, he targeted all those who helped the British, be they Hindu or Muslim.^[207]

Declaration of death penalty

Variyamkunnath Kunjahammad Haji declared the death penalty to people who attempt forceful conversion.^[208]

R. H. Hitchcock

The superintendent of police for South Malabar, R. H. Hitchcock, who played outstanding part in the fight against the Malabar rebellion^[218] said it was not a riot against Hindus by Muslims.^[219]

B. R. Ambedkar

B. R. Ambedkar ,who advocated for the formation of Pakistan^[220] in his book Pakistan or the Partition of India,^[221] said in the book on the rebellion,

"The blood-curdling atrocities committed by the Moplas in Malabar against the Hindus were indescribable. All over Southern India, a wave of horrified feeling had spread among the Hindus of every shade of opinion, which was intensified when certain Khilafat leaders were so misguided as to pass resolutions of congratulations to the Moplas on the brave fight they were conducting for the sake of religion". Any person could have said that this was too heavy a price for Hindu-Muslim unity. But Mr. Gandhi was so much obsessed by the necessity of establishing Hindu-Muslim unity that he was prepared to make light of the doings of the Moplas and the Khilafats who were congratulating them. He spoke of the Mappilas as the "brave God-fearing Moplahs". who were fighting for what they consider as religion and in a manner which they consider as religious".

Madhavan Nair

Madhavan Nair who criticised the rebellion, who always sided with Jenmis, who authored a series of articles which later became part of the book titled Malabar Kalapam (whose authenticity is desputed and has cotradictions in several parts) about the rebellion, who sided with the British in his writing about the Battle of Pookottur,^[227] said it was not a riot against Hindus by Muslims.^[228]

Annie Besant

Annie Besant, whose motion was once defeated by people in Manjeri, says in two separate articles in New India on 29 November 1921 and 6 December 1921 as to what happened to the Malabar Hindus at the hands of the Moplahs,

"Mr. Gandhi...can he not feel a little sympathy for thousands of women left with only rags, driven from home, for little children born of the flying mothers on roads in refuge camps? The misery is beyond description. Girl wives, pretty and sweet, with eyes half blind with weeping, distraught with terror; women who have seen their husbands hacked to pieces before their eye, in the way "Moplas consider as religious"; old women tottering, whose faces become written with anguish and who cry at a gentle touch....men who have lost all, hopeless, crushed, desperate... Can you conceive of a more ghastly and inhuman crime than the murders of babies and pregnant women?...A pregnant woman carrying 7 months was cut through the abdomen by a rebel and she was seen lying dead on the way with the dead child projecting out of the womb... Another: a baby of six months was snatched away from the breast of his own mother and cut into two pieces... Are these rebels human beings or monsters? A respectable Nayar Lady at Melatur was stripped naked by the rebels in the presence of her husband and brothers, who were made to stand close by with their hands tied behind. When they shut their eyes in abhorrence they were compelled at the point of sword to open their eyes and witness the rape committed by the brute in their presence."

Variamkunnan and Thuvvur Incident

Critics very often criticise the rebellion citing the Thuvvur incident. The Thuvvur incident is an incident of punishing those people who raped Mappila women and aided the British force by giving them information about Mappilas, so that the British force could find the Mappilas to kill. Ten persons were captured for punishment. Dalits helped to find the people who gave information to the British force. Eight of the ten had been killed by the time Chembrasseri Thangal came. Two Mappilas include in those killed. One Mappila killed was beaten so that the skin would damage severely. Chembrassery Thangal prevented this extrajudicial killing and set the remaining two free. The people responsible for this were taken to Variamkunnan and Variyankunnath Kunjahammad Haji gave punishment for conducting the extrajudicial punishment. The story of the Thuvvur well into which the severed heads were put and the narrative with number of people killed differing such as some 20 or 36 or 38 or some 35 also exist.^{[233][234][235]}