Indigenous treaties in Australia are proposed binding legal agreements between Australian governments and Australian First Nations (or other similar groups). A treaty could (amongst other things) recognise First Nations as distinct political communities, acknowledge Indigenous Sovereignty, set out mutually recognised rights and responsibilities or provide for some degree of self-government.[1] As of 2022, no such treaties are in force, however the Commonwealth and all States except Western Australia have committed to a treaty process. The rejection of the Voice in the 2023 referendum has caused governments in Australia to reassess their commitment to establishing race based institutions in government.

Moves to State and Territory treaties were boosted by the Victorian Government's establishment of a legal framework for negotiations to progress, announced in 2016 and with the election of the First Peoples' Assembly in 2019. Support shown for Indigenous issues by the June 2020 Black Lives Matter rallies across Australia also increased the momentum for a treaty process.

Background

The objects of treaties between governments and Indigenous peoples may include:

Research by the Harvard Project on American Indian Economic Development shows that self-determination is an essential component in redressing entrenched disadvantage.[2]

Many Aboriginal Australians have said that a treaty or treaties would bring them real as well as symbolic recognition, and national debate has occurred for many years on the topic, alongside related matters such as Indigenous recognition in the Australian Constitution, land rights, and programs aimed at reducing disadvantage such as Closing the Gap. This type of treaty would involve a formal agreement which defines the relationship between government and First Nations peoples, and could include binding contracts on specific issues as well as practical measures relating to health and education.[3]

British colonial representatives negotiated treaties with Indigenous peoples in New Zealand and in Canada during early phases of settlement.[4] The Treaty of Waitangi was concluded in 1840 at time when the future Colony of New Zealand was then part of the Colony of New South Wales. British treaty-making in North America began as early as sixteenth century and continued until Canada gained self-government in 1867, after which time the Canadian federal government entered into the Numbered Treaties (1871 to 1921). Colonial treaties also featured in African history: a chief of Bonny (in present-day Nigeria) in 1860 explained that he refused a British treaty due to the tendency to "induce the Chiefs to sign a treaty whose meaning they did not understand, and then seize upon the country".[5] The sale of "Lüderitzland" in present-day Namibia to Adolf Lüderitz in 1883 provides an example of a misunderstood treaty.

History

Indigenous treaties have been discussed since the early years of the Australian colonies. In 1832 the Governor of Van Diemen's Land (now Tasmania), George Arthur remarked in the aftermath of the Black War in the colony that it was "a fatal error...that a treaty was not entered into with the natives". He recommended to the Colonial Office that, before the colonisation of South Australia, an understanding be reached with the Aboriginal peoples there, in a bid "to prevent a long-continued warfare".[6] Notably, the Letters Patent establishing the Province of South Australia of 1836 (unlike the South Australia Act 1834, which it amended), included recognition of the rights of the Aboriginal peoples of South Australia.[7][8]

The only pre-21st century attempt to negotiate a treaty with Indigenous Australians was what came to be known as Batman's Treaty. This was an agreement between John Batman, a pastoralist and businessman, and a group of Wurundjeri elders, for the purchase of land around Port Phillip, near the present site of Melbourne[9] The so-called treaty was declared void on 26 August 1835 by the Governor of New South Wales, Richard Bourke,[10] which declared that all land within the colony belonged to the Crown and that it had the sole authority to dispose of it.[11][12] While the Crown retains the right to dispose of any land under the doctrine of radical title, some inherent Indigenous rights to land have been recognised under native title law.

An Indigenous treaty was first promised by Prime Minister Bob Hawke in 1988 after receiving the Barunga Statement from Aboriginal elders, which called for such a treaty to be concluded. Despite public interest and growing support, concerns were raised over possible implications of such a treaty, such as financial compensation.[13][14]

21st century

In 2017, Prime Minister Malcolm Turnbull rejected the proposal for an Indigenous voice to parliament, it being the first request of the Uluru Statement from the Heart, which also included a request for treaty.[13][14]

With no progress made towards an Indigenous treaty at federal level (despite decades of debate),[6] in the early 21st century a number of states and territories began treaty negotiations with their Indigenous peoples.[3] The 2017 Uluru Statement from the Heart included the request: "We seek a Makarrata Commission to supervise a process of agreement-making between governments and First Nations and truth-telling about our history"[15] (Makarrata being a Yolngu word for "a process of conflict resolution, peacemaking and justice"[16]).[17]

In July 2019, Ken Wyatt, recently appointed to the new role of Minister for Indigenous Australians, gave an address to the National Press Club, in which he spoke of the theme of NAIDOC Week 2019: "Voice. Treaty. Truth.". He spoke of the development of a local, regional and national voice, and said "with respect to Treaty, it's important that states and territory jurisdictions take the lead. When you consider the constitution, they are better placed to undertake that work".[17][18][19]

With the Victorian Government's creation of a legal framework for Indigenous treaty negotiations in 2018 with their First Peoples' Assembly, the debate rose to prominence across Australia again,[6] with impetus added by the June 2020 Black Lives Matter rallies across Australia.[20][21]

As of 2022, there are no treaties between the federal or any state government in Australia in force.[22]

State and territory treaty processes

The Victorian Government of Daniel Andrews was the first at state level to pass a legal framework for Indigenous treaty negotiations, in 2018,[3] but there have been various moves made to instigate such a process in all states and territories in the 21st century.

Issues covered by an Indigenous treaty with a state government are likely to include health and education.[4]

Northern Territory

In 2018 the Northern Territory Government of Michael Gunner pledged to undertake a treaty process with Indigenous peoples of the Territory,[6] including the appointment of an Independent Treaty Commissioner to oversee negotiations.[23] In June 2018 Gunner signed the "Barunga agreement", a memorandum of understanding committing his Government to negotiate with the Territory's four Aboriginal land councils over the next three years to develop a treaty process.[24]

The process will be overseen by an independent treaty commissioner, who in the first stage will undertake consultations for one year with the Indigenous communities to gauge their interest in a treaty. In the second stage, a public discussion paper will be released, translated into major Aboriginal languages for consultation and feedback. A final report will then be tabled in the Northern Territory Legislative Assembly within 18 months of stage one's completion.[24]

On 4 March 2019, Mick Dodson was appointed Treaty Commissioner, agreed by all four NT land councils and the Minister. He is tasked with presenting a final report within 2.5 years.[25] The Treaty Commission, in a discussion paper published in July 2020, has said: "Some of our Elders are very old ... the process of truth-telling must begin as soon as possible. It is urgent". Truth-telling is an essential step, and must take place before the negotiations for treaty get under way, which can take a long time. Because the NT is not a state, treaties negotiated with the NT Government could be overruled by the Federal Government, thereby limiting their effectiveness. There are also challenges in cases where traditional owners' lands extend across state borders, and where members and descendants of the Stolen Generations have not been able to find who their people are and therefore may not qualify as First Nations people. The Treaty Commissioner would be handing his report to the Chief Minister in 2022, after which negotiations would begin.[26]

Queensland

In 2019 the Queensland Government of Annastacia Palaszczuk announced its interest in pursuing a pathway to an Indigenous treaty process.[27] The Treaty Working Group and Eminent Treaty Process Panel were set up, with Jackie Huggins and Michael Lavarch co-chairing the Eminent Panel. Their Path to Treaty Report was tabled in Queensland Parliament in February 2020 after they had consulted widely, across more than 1,700 Queenslanders and 24 communities between July 2019 and early 2020,[28] and presented to Deputy Premier, Treasurer and Minister for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Partnerships Jackie Trad. Huggins said that a process of truth-telling, acknowledging the history of Australia, is a "vital component to moving on".[29]

On 13 August 2020, Premier Palaszczuk announced that the Government would be supporting the recommendation to move forward on a Path to Treaty with First Nations Queenslanders. She said that the Treaty Advancement Committee would provide independent advice on the implementation of the panel's recommendations.[30]

In 2023 the Queensland Parliament passed the Path to Treaty Act 2023 (Qld), which established the First Nations Treaty Institute, an independent statutory body to assist First Nations prepare for the upcoming treaty process. The act also created the Truth-telling and Healing Inquiry, to record and report on the impact of colonisation on Indigenous Queenslanders.[31]

On 19 October 2023, a few days after the 2023 Australian Indigenous Voice referendum the opposition Liberal National Party of Queensland (LNP) leader David Crisafulli announced that they would be withdrawing its support for Treaty. The LNP had supported Treaty in early 2023.[32][33][34]

South Australia

In 2016 the South Australian Government of Jay Weatherill announced its intention to negotiate treaties with Indigenous groups across the state, announcing that $4.4 million was set aside over five years for the purpose,[35] to establish up to 40 treaties across the state.[25] In December 2016, talks began between the government and three Aboriginal nations: the Ngarrindjeri, Narungga and Adnyamathanha peoples. Following the July 2017 report of the South Australian Treaty Commissioner, negotiations began.[6] In February 2018, the Buthera Agreement was signed with the Narungga nation, of the Yorke Peninsula.[36]

Following the Weatherill government's defeat in the 2018 state election, incoming premier Steven Marshall paused the treaty negotiation process that had been begun by his predecessor, Jay Weatherill, stating he wanted to focus on "practical outcomes".[37][38]

In 2022 the Labor government returned to office, with Premier Peter Malinauskas, committing to restart the treaty process.[39]

Tasmania

On Australia Day in 2015, the Tasmanian Greens called for a formal treaty to be negotiated between the Tasmanian Government and the Tasmanian Aboriginal community.[40] Michael Mansell, chair of the Aboriginal Land Council of Tasmania, said in August 2019 that non-Indigenous people need not fear a treaty, as it would "simply be an expression of true democracy and self-determination". At that point, only 300 km2 (120 sq mi) of the 67,000 km2 (26,000 sq mi) of Tasmania had been returned under the Aboriginal Lands Act 1995. He said that returning a few key areas of uninhabited wilderness which was now Crown land would mean jobs for Aboriginal people.[41]

In June 2020, Mansell and Greg Brown, Tasmanian Aboriginal Corporation board member, had their first meeting with Premier Peter Gutwein, and raised the matter of a treaty.[42] Mansell had been heartened by the support shown for Aboriginal issues across Australia in the Black Lives Matter protests sparked by the death of US man George Floyd, and spoke at the Launceston rally of the need for a Treaty Commission.[43]

In 2021, Premier Peter Gutwein announced the beginning of a treaty and truth telling process, beginning with consultations with the State's Aboriginal population.[44] An Aboriginal Advisory Group held its first meeting in February 2023.[45] However, certain Indigenous groups have described their distrust of the government and have alleged that the government 'only willing to listen to six people as part of their government-selected group'.[45] The issue of deciding who should be counted as Aboriginal for the purpose of treaty negotiation is yet to be decided, with many Aboriginal people expressing anger and frustration with what they believe are a greater number of people 'falsely' claiming Aboriginal status and what they believe is government encouragement of this practice.[46]

Victoria

The Victorian Government was the first at state level to pass a legal framework for Indigenous treaty negotiations, in 2018.[3][47] The Victorian Liberal Party opposed a state-based Indigenous treaty, stating that a federal treaty would be more appropriate.[47] Opposition politician Bernie Finn also stated that since Aboriginal Victorians were Victorian citizens, the state would be making an Indigenous treaty with itself, an argument rejected by the Government.[48]

On 3 July 2018, the government passed the first Australian treaty law ever, the Advancing the Treaty Process with Aboriginal Victorians Act 2018,[25] effective 1 August 2018.[49] The ultimate goal of a partnership between the Victorian Government and Aboriginal communities "is to achieve reconciliation and justice for Aboriginal communities", and the Act enshrines such a partnership in law.[2]

The 2019 Victorian First Peoples' Assembly election was held to choose the representatives for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people in Victoria.[50][51][52] only 7% of the eligible voters turned out to vote.[53]

Yoorrook

In July 2020, the Victorian government became the first state or territory to commit to the creation of a truth and justice commission to "formally recognise historical wrongs and ongoing injustices" against Aboriginal people.[25] The commission was named the Yoorrook Justice Commission, and aims to establish an official public record of the experience of Aboriginal Victorians since the start of British colonisation in Victoria. It will examine past and ongoing injustices to the First People of Victoria resulting from colonisation, providing provide a culturally safe place in which First People and others can tell the truth about traumatic events that have happened and their effects, to identify systemic injustice in Victoria and propose reforms to end that injustice and to propose matters that might be included in Victoria's ongoing treaty-making processes.[54] Its findings, scheduled to be reported by June 2024, will include recommendations for reform and redress, and will inform Victoria's Treaty negotiations.[55]

Benefits of colonisation were not examined.

Justice Kevin Bell was appointed as the only non-Aboriginal Commissioner; the others are:[56]

  • Professor Eleanor Bourke, Chairperson
  • Dr Wayne Atkinson
  • Kevin Bell (the only non-Aboriginal commissioner)
  • Sue-Anne Hunter
  • Distinguished Professor Maggie Walter

Uncle Jack Charles was the first Indigenous elder to speak about his experiences at the first set of public hearings, or wurrek tyerrang, in April 2021. A second block of hearings was scheduled for late May. Elders were invited to speak about their direct experiences and perspectives, based on their preparedness to tell their truths in a public setting. Others would be able to share their stories in submissions, or nuther-mooyoop, in writing, audio or video form, or as an object such as an artwork.[55]

In May 2023 the Victorian Government admitted to the commission that state systems had failed to properly monitor the progress of initiatives that are intended to help reduce the numbers of Indigenous children in state care, disproportionate incarceration of Indigenous people, especially youth, and Aboriginal deaths in custody.[57] In September 2023 the Commission proposed 46 recommendations to improve the child protection and criminal justice systems in Victoria, including raising the age of criminal responsibility from 10 to 14 years of age, after finding that Aboriginal children were 21 times more likely to be in foster care in Victoria than non-Aboriginal children, and over the previous ten years, the rates of Aboriginal men on remand had grown by nearly 600%. The report was welcomed by Victoria Police, and Anne Ferguson, the Chief Justice of Victoria, said that changes may be made after considering the report.[58]

The final report of the commission is due in 2025.[58]

Western Australia

In 2015 the Western Australian Government of Colin Barnett signed a A$1.3 billion native title settlement with the Noongar people,[59] which was described by deputy opposition leader Roger Cook as "a classic treaty",[60][6] and Ken Wyatt called it "a treaty in the true sense".[17]

The comprehensive South West Native Title Settlement aims to resolve native title claims in exchange for statutory recognition of the Noongar people as the traditional owners of South-Western Australia.[61] As of 2020 it is the largest native title settlement in Australian history, affecting about 30,000 Noongar People and encompassing around 200,000 km2 (77,000 sq mi) in south-western Western Australia. It has been described as "Australia's first treaty" by legal academics Harry Hobbs and George Williams.[62][63]

By 2018, WA had announced plans to establish an Aboriginal representative body in the state.[13] However, as of February 2023, the State has not committed to a treaty process.[64]

New South Wales

The New South Wales Labor party committed to funding and beginning treaty discussion as an election promise prior to winning government in March 2023.[65] David Harris has been appointed as minister for Aboriginal Affairs and Treaty.[66]

See also

References

  1. ↑ Hobbs, Harry; Norman, Heidi; Walsh, Matthew (3 April 2023). "What actually is a treaty? What could it mean for Indigenous people?". The Conversation. Australia.
  2. 1 2 "Advancing the Treaty Process with Aboriginal Victorians Bill 2018". Parliament of Victoria. 7 March 2018. Retrieved 21 July 2020.
  3. 1 2 3 4 "Australia moves towards Aboriginal treaties". BBC News. British Broadcasting Corporation. 8 June 2018. Retrieved 14 July 2019.
  4. 1 2 "What will Indigenous treaties mean?". ABC News. Australian Broadcasting Corporation. 14 December 2016. Retrieved 14 July 2019. Australia is the only Commonwealth country that does not have a treaty with its Indigenous peoples and interestingly, the states are leading the charge, the ABC's editor of Indigenous affairs says.
  5. ↑ Isichei, Elizabeth Allo (1983). Isichei, Peter Uche (ed.). A History of Nigeria. Vol. 2. London: Longman. p. 362. ISBN 9780582643314. Retrieved 12 April 2021.
  6. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Hobbs, Harry; Williams, George (1 March 2018). "The Noongar Settlement: Australia's First Treaty". Sydney Law Review. 40 (1). Retrieved 20 July 2020 – via Australasian Legal Information Institute (AustLII).
  7. ↑ "Order-in-Council Establishing Government 23 February 1836 (UK)". Museum of Australian Democracy. Documenting a democracy. Retrieved 16 November 2019.
  8. ↑ Draft of the Order-in-Council Establishing Government 23 February 1836 (UK), National Archives of Australia
  9. ↑ Richard Broome, pp10-14, Aboriginal Victorians: A History Since 1800, Allen & Unwin, 2005, ISBN 1-74114-569-4, ISBN 978-1-74114-569-4
  10. ↑ "Governor Bourke's Proclamation 1835 (UK)". Documenting Democracy. Museum of Australian Democracy. Retrieved 20 July 2020.
  11. ↑ "The Batman Treaty". SBS On Demand. Special Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved 14 July 2019.
  12. ↑ "Batman's treaty". Ergo. State Library of Victoria. Retrieved 15 July 2019.
  13. 1 2 3 "Why doesn't Australia have an indigenous treaty?". BBC News. British Broadcasting Corporation. 24 May 2017. Retrieved 14 July 2019.
  14. 1 2 "Indigenous Australian 'hearts broken'". BBC News. 27 October 2017. Retrieved 20 July 2020.
  15. ↑ "Uluru Statement from the Heart". referendumcouncil.org.au. Referendum Council. Archived from the original on 6 March 2019. Retrieved 21 July 2018.
  16. ↑ Pearson, Luke (10 August 2017). "What is a Makarrata? It's more than a synonym for treaty". ABC News (Radio National). Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Archived from the original on 5 June 2019. Retrieved 21 July 2020.
  17. 1 2 3 Wyatt, Ken. "National Press Club Address - 'Walking in Partnership to Effect Change'". Ministers Media Centre. Retrieved 21 July 2020.
  18. ↑ Conifer, Dan (9 July 2019). "Indigenous constitutional recognition to be put to referendum in next three years, Minister promises". ABC News. Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved 21 July 2020.
  19. ↑ Wyatt, Ken (10 July 2019). "Ken Wyatt speech: Indigenous Australians Minister's historic pledge for recognition". The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 21 July 2020.
  20. ↑ Atkinson, Geraldine; Stewart, Marcus (4 June 2020). "OPINION: Blak Lives Matter - Which is why we need Treaty". NITV. Special Broadcasting Service. Retrieved 4 September 2022.
  21. ↑ Jakubowicz, Andrew; Payne, Anne Maree; Thomas, Archie; Norman, Heidi (11 November 2020). "The Black Lives Matter movement has provoked a cultural reckoning about how Black stories are told". The Conversation. Retrieved 4 September 2022.
  22. ↑ Allam, Lorena (20 August 2022). "What is an Indigenous treaty and how would it work in Australia?". The Guardian. Guardian News & Media Limited. Retrieved 4 September 2022.
  23. ↑ Wellington, Shahni (8 June 2018). "Indigenous treaty a step closer after NT Government's historic pledge". ABC News. Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved 14 July 2019.
  24. 1 2 Allam, Lorena (8 June 2018). "NT signs historic Barunga agreement to begin Indigenous treaty talks". The Guardian. Retrieved 15 July 2019.
  25. 1 2 3 4 Korff, Jens (20 July 2020). "Aboriginal timeline: Treaty". Creative Spirits (in Polish). Retrieved 20 July 2020.
  26. ↑ Gooley, Cameron (15 July 2020). "NT Treaty Commission eyes 2022 submission of final report with consultations to commence". ABC News. Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved 27 August 2020.
  27. ↑ Siganto, Talissa (14 July 2019). "'Long time coming': Queensland commits to Indigenous treaty process". ABC News. Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved 14 July 2019.
  28. ↑ Smith, Douglas (10 February 2020). "QLD Government receives treaty recommendations after months of consultations". NITV. SBS. Retrieved 14 August 2020.
  29. ↑ "Truth-telling guides next steps on Queensland's historic Path to Treaty". Mirage News. 10 February 2020. Retrieved 14 August 2020.
  30. ↑ Palaszczuk, Annastacia; Crawford, Craig (13 August 2020). "Queensland Government's historic commitment to Treaty-making process". Queensland Cabinet and Ministerial Directory. Retrieved 14 August 2020. Text was copied from this source, which is available under a Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) licence.
  31. ↑ Queensland Government (22 February 2023). "Where are we up to? | Queensland's Path to Treaty". Queensland Government. Archived from the original on 30 August 2023.
  32. ↑ Gillespie, Eden (18 October 2023). "Queensland LNP abandons support for treaty with First Nations people". The Guardian. Retrieved 20 October 2023.
  33. ↑ Riga, Rachel (18 October 2023). "Queensland Opposition Leader David Crisafulli says Path to Treaty 'will only create further division', retracts support for laws". ABC News. Retrieved 20 October 2023.
  34. ↑ "LNP flips on support for treaty". The Australian. 30 November 2021. Retrieved 20 October 2023.
  35. ↑ Australian Associated Press (14 December 2016). "SA government aims to sign treaty with Indigenous Australians within 12 months". The Guardian. Retrieved 15 July 2019.
  36. ↑ "Treaty in South Australia". ANTaR. 11 September 2019. Retrieved 20 July 2020.
  37. ↑ Wahlquist, Calla (30 April 2018). "South Australia halts Indigenous treaty talks as premier says he has 'other priorities'". The Guardian. Retrieved 14 July 2019.
  38. ↑ Kurmelovs, Royce (12 December 2018). "SA's Aboriginal Affairs Action Plan slammed as 'collection of dot points'". NITV News. Special Broadcasting Service. Retrieved 15 July 2019.
  39. ↑ "What SA's new govt wants to achieve in Aboriginal affairs". NITV. Retrieved 30 August 2023.
  40. ↑ "Call for Tasmanian Aboriginal Treaty". Tasmanian Greens MPs. 26 January 2015. Retrieved 20 July 2020.
  41. ↑ Holmes, Adam (7 August 2019). "Tasmania treaty talks: Michael Mansell's vision for treaty, land return, GDP allocation, land access and seats in Parliament". The Canberra Times. Retrieved 20 July 2020.
  42. ↑ Maunder, Sarah (10 June 2020). "Aboriginal leaders in Tasmania broach treaty discussions with state government". NITV. Retrieved 20 July 2020.
  43. ↑ Bailey, Sue (8 June 2020). "Aboriginal leader Michael Mansell has been overwhelmed by support at Black Lives Matter rallies". The Advocate. Retrieved 20 July 2020.
  44. ↑ "Timetable for the 'truth' about island's bloody past to be told". ABC News. 22 June 2021. Retrieved 30 August 2023.
  45. 1 2 "Eighteen months after a report urged truth-telling in Tasmania, has anything changed?". ABC News. 28 May 2023. Retrieved 30 August 2023.
  46. ↑ "'We've been made visible': Aboriginal Tasmanians celebrate first steps to treaty". ABC News. 25 November 2021. Retrieved 30 August 2023.
  47. 1 2 Afshariyan, Nkayla (7 June 2018). "Australia's first Aboriginal treaty negotiations passed in Victoria". triple j. Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved 15 July 2019.
  48. ↑ Wahlquist, Calla (21 June 2018). "Victoria passes historic law to create Indigenous treaty framework". The Guardian. Retrieved 15 July 2019.
  49. ↑ "Advancing the Treaty Process with Aboriginal Victorians Act 2018". Victorian legislation. 14 February 2020. Retrieved 21 July 2020.
  50. ↑ Rollason, Bridget (16 September 2019). "Victorian treaty negotiations move closer as voting opens for First Peoples' Assembly". ABC News. Retrieved 18 July 2020.
  51. ↑ Australian Associated Press (16 September 2019). "Voting opens for representatives to Victoria's First Peoples' Assembly". The Guardian. Retrieved 18 July 2020.
  52. ↑ "About". First Peoples' Assembly of Victoria. 24 November 2019. Retrieved 18 July 2020.
  53. ↑ Towell, Noel (10 November 2019). "Historic vote, but only 7 per cent turned out for Aboriginal poll". The Age. Retrieved 31 December 2019.
  54. ↑ "Overview". Yoorrook Justice Commission. 7 September 2022. Retrieved 15 September 2022.
  55. 1 2 Australian Associated Press (26 April 2022). "Uncle Jack Charles makes history as first Indigenous elder to speak at Victorian truth-telling commission". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 14 September 2022. Retrieved 14 September 2022.
  56. ↑ "Director, Professor the Hon Kevin H Bell AM QC, appointed to the Yoo-rrook Justice Commission". Castan Centre for Human Rights Law. 17 May 2021. Retrieved 15 September 2022.
  57. ↑ Ashton, Kate (5 May 2023). "In Victoria's truth-telling inquiry, the government admits its 'shame'. But Yoorrook wants something more". ABC News (Australia). Retrieved 7 May 2023.
  58. 1 2 Ashton, Kate (4 September 2023). "Victorian Aboriginal truth-telling inquiry calls for major overhaul of justice systems". ABC News (Australia). Retrieved 6 September 2023.
  59. ↑ Poloni, Gian De (8 June 2015). "WA Premier signs $1.3 billion Noongar native title deal". ABC News. Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved 14 July 2019.
  60. ↑ Hobbs, Harry (19 December 2016). "Will treaties with Indigenous Australians overtake constitutional recognition?". The Conversation. Retrieved 14 July 2019.
  61. ↑ Cawthorn, Michael (22 November 2017). "Traditional Owner Corporations". PBC. Retrieved 30 July 2020.
  62. ↑ "Settlement Agreement". South West Aboriginal Land and Sea Council. Retrieved 31 July 2020.
  63. ↑ Hobbs, Harry; Williams, George (2018). "The Noongar Settlement: Australia's First Treaty". Sydney Law Review.
  64. ↑ Barton, Fraser (15 February 2023). "State, territories work towards Indigenous treaties". The Canberra Times. Retrieved 30 August 2023.
  65. ↑ "NSW Labor commits to treaty consultations with Indigenous community if elected in March". ABC News. 21 January 2023. Retrieved 30 August 2023.
  66. ↑ Cross, Jarred (7 April 2023). "New NSW Minister for Aboriginal Affairs and Treaty lays out plans". National Indigenous Times. Archived from the original on 10 April 2023.

Further reading

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