虾类养殖

數百年來，亞洲使用傳統的低密度方法養蝦；印尼的鹹水池塘可以追溯至十五世紀。有些小規模漁塘只單獨養蝦，有一些則連同其他物種，如虱目魚一起飼養。有些蝦則養在旱季的稻田裡，與水稻輪作──因為旱季不能種植稻米[1]。傳統的小規模養殖場，多數在沿岸地區或河濱。因為紅樹林地區有豐富的野生蝦，所以是最理想的養蝦場。野生蝦苖被困在漁塘，以天然的水中生物為生，當長到理想的大小時，蝦農撈捕蝦穫。

工業蝦養殖的起源，可追溯到20世紀30年代，當時日本首次培育日本對蝦（Penaeus japonicus）。到了60年代，日本已經出現小規模的蝦養殖業[2]。商業養蝦業開始於20世紀60年代末和70年代初。由於技術進步，養蝦密度得以增加；另一面，市場對蝦的需求日益增長，導致蝦養殖場遍佈世界各地。蝦養殖場主要集中在熱帶和亞熱帶地區。1980年代初期，海蝦的需求日益增長，與此同時，野生蝦漁獲郤不能增加，這為海蝦養殖業創造一個理想的發展環境，造就它的繁榮。

台灣是其中一個早期的參與者，在上世紀80年代是主要的養蝦生產地。然而由於管理不善和疾病，台灣的蝦養殖工業從1988年開始崩塌[3]。從1985年開始，大型的高密度蝦養殖場在泰國迅速擴展[4]。厄瓜多爾率先在南美開發養蝦業，並且從1978年開始急劇發展[5]。 自1974年以來，巴西的養蝦業一直活躍，但是蝦貿易到了20世紀90年代，才真正蓬勃發展，令到該國在數年之內，成為主要養蝦生產國[6]。到了今天，擁有海蝦養殖場的國家多達50多個。

在1970年代，野生海蝦捕撈業能供應的海蝦產量，不足以滿足消費者對海蝦的需求，因此海蝦養殖成為一個經濟上可行的替代方法，以滿足市場日益增長的需求。舊式的自給自足的養殖方法（又稱少有餘糧的農場經營、糊口農業），迅速被淘汰，取而代之的是以出口為主的高密度養蝦工業。工業養蝦最初仍沿用傳統的養殖方法，不過工業養蝦場的面積比舊式養蝦魚塘大得多，以彌補低密度海蝦的單位面積產量。舊式養蝦魚塘一般只有幾公顷大，而在一些地方的工業養蝦場的大小，卻能達100公頃（1平方公里）。

• 各国捕捞与养殖水产品产量列表
• FAO Land and Water Development Division: Bio-Physical, Socio-Economic and Environmental Impacts of Salt-affected Soils （页面存档备份，存于）, 2000. URL last accessed 2005-08-23.
• Barraclough, S.; Finger-Stich, A.: Some Ecological and Social Implications of Commercial Shrimp Farming in Asia （页面存档备份，存于）, United Nations Research Institute for Social Development (UNRISD) Discussion Paper #74, 1996.
• Bondad-Reantaso, M. G.; McGladdery, S. E.; East, I.; Subasinghe, R. P. (eds.): Asia Diagnostic Guide to Aquatic Animal Diseases, chapter 4 （页面存档备份，存于）. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper 402/2, NACA/FAO 2001. ISBN 92-5-104620-4.
• Boyd, C. E.; Hargreaves, J. A.; Clay, J. R.: Codes of Practice for Marine Shrimp Farming （页面存档备份，存于）, World Bank/NACA/WWF/FAO Consortium Program on Shrimp Farming and the Environment, 2002.
• Chautard, P. (ed.); Avalle, O.; Millous, O.; Vimaux, J.-F.: L’élevage de la crevette en zone tropicale ("Shrimp farming in the tropical zone"), Centre pour le Développement de l’Entreprise, Brussels, Belgium; November 2003. In French. URL last accessed November 22, 2006.
• Consortium: Draft report of the Consortium Programme Shrimp Farming and the Environment （页面存档备份，存于）, World Bank/NACA/WWF/FAO, June 21, 2002.
• DeWalt, B. R.: Social and Environmental Aspects of Shrimp Aquaculture in Coastal Mexico, paper presented at the Mangrove 2000 conference in Recife, Brazil, May 2000.
• Data extracted from the FAO Fisheries Global Aquaculture Production Database （页面存档备份，存于） for the seven commonly farmed species plus Pennaeus spp. The most recent data sets are for 2006 and sometimes contain estimates. Last accessed 2008-07-03.
• Data extracted from the FAO Fisheries Global Aquaculture Production Database （页面存档备份，存于） for freshwater crustaceans. The most recent data sets are for 2003 and sometimes contain estimates. Last accessed 2005-06-28.
• FAO: GLOBEFISH Shrimp Market Reports （页面存档备份，存于）; FAO GlobeFish; 2003 – 2005.
• Fitzpatrick, R.; Powell, B.; Marvanek, S.: Coastal Acid Sulphate Soils: National Atlas and Future Scenarios, CSIRO, 2006. Presented at the 18^th World Congress of Soil Science (WCSS), June 9–15, 2006. URL last accessed 2007-10-12.
• FoodMarket: Shrimp Production; data from GlobeFish, 2001. URL last accessed 2005-06-23.
• Funge-Smith, S.; Briggs, M.: Introductions and movement of Penaeus vannamei and Penaeus stylirostris in Asia and the Pacific, FAO RAP publication 2004/10. A PDF （页面存档备份，存于） file of an abridged version presented at the workshop for "International Mechanisms for the Control and Responsible Use of Alien Species in Aquatic Ecosystems", Jinghong, Xishuangbanna, PRC; August 26 – 29, 2003, also exists.
• Global Aquaculture Alliance: Responsible Aquaculture Program. URl last accessed 2005-08-19.
• Global Aquaculture Alliance: Antidumping. URL last accessed 2005-08-23.
• Gulf States Marine Fisheries Commission: Non-Native Species Summaries: Yellowhead Virus（YHV）, 2003. URl last accessed 2005-06-23.
• Gulf States Marine Fisheries Commission: Non-Native Species Summaries: White Spot Syndrome Baculovirus Complex（WSBV）, 2003. URL last accessed 2005-06-23.
• Hempel, E.; Winther, U.; Hambrey, J.: Can Shrimp Farming Be Undertaken Sustainably? , World Bank/NACA/FAO/WWF Consortium Program on Shrimp Farming and the Environment, 2002.
• Hossain, Md. Z., Lin, C.K., 2001. Diversified Uses of Abandoned Shrimp Ponds - A Case Study in the Upper Gulf of Thailand. ITCZM Monograph No. 5, Asian Institute of Technology, Bangkok, Thailand; 2001. URL last accessed 2007-02-15.
• Indian Aquaculture Authority: Shrimp Aquaculture and the Environment - An Environment Impact Assessment Report, ch. 2; IAA report, April 2001.
• Indian Aquaculture Authority: Shrimp Aquaculture and the Environment - An Environment Impact Assessment Report, ch. 6; IAA report, April 2001.
• International Shrimp Action Network: Prawn to Trade, Prawn to Consume, 2000. URL last accessed 2007-08-20.
• Josueit, H.: An Overview on the World Shrimp Market, FAO GlobeFish. Presentation given at World Shrimp Markets 2004, Madrid, Spain; October 26/27, 2004.
• Kumaran, M.; Ravichandran, P.; Gupta, B.P.; Nagavel, A.: Shrimp Farming Practices and its Socio-Economic Consequences in East Godavari District, Andhra Pradesh, India – A Case Study （页面存档备份，存于）, Aquaculture Asia 8(3), September 2003.
• Lewis, R. R.; Philipps, M. J.; Clough, B.; Macintosh, D. J.: Thematic Review on Coastal Wetland Habitats and Shrimp Aquaculture （页面存档备份，存于）, World Bank/NACA/WWF/FAO Consortium Program on Shrimp Farming and the Environment, 2003.
• McClennan, C.: White Spot Syndrome Virus – The Economic, Environmental and Technical Implications of the Development of Latin American Shrimp Farming, Master's Thesis, Tufts University, 2004.
• NACA: Codes and Certification （页面存档备份，存于）; Network of Aquaculture Centres in Asia-Pacific（NACA）. URL last accessed 2005-08-19.
• NACA/MPEDA: Shrimp Health Management Extension Manual （页面存档备份，存于）, Network of Aquaculture Centres in Asia-Pacific (NACA) and Marine Products Export Development Authority (MPEDA), India; 2003.
• Novelli, Y.: Brazil's Shrimp Farming History, E-Mail, 2003.
• World Organization for Animal Health（OIE）: Aquatic Manual, 4th Ed., 2003. ISBN 92-9044-563-7.
• Owen, J.: Shrimp's Success Hurts Asian Environment, Group Says, in National Geographic News, June 21, 2004; updated December 20, 2004. URL last accessed 2007-08-20.
• Pérez Farfante, I.; Kensley, B. F.: Penaeoid and Sergestoid Shrimps and Prawns of the World（Keys and Diagnoses for the Families and Genera）; Editions du Museum national d'Histoire naturelle #175; Paris, 1997. ISBN 2-85653-510-0.
• Rönnbäck, P. (2001): Shrimp aquaculture - State of the art. Swedish EIA Centre, Report 1. Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), Uppsala; 2001. ISBN 91-576-6113-8. URL last accessed 2007-08-20.
• Rönnbäck, P. (2003): Critical Analysis of Certified Organic Shrimp Aquaculture in Sidoarjo, Indonesia, Swedish Society for Nature Conservation (SSNC), 2003. URL last accessed 2007-08-20.
• Rosenberry, B.: About Shrimp Farming, ShrimpNews, August 2004. URL last accessed 2005-06-28.
• Rosenberry, B.: Species of Farm-Raised Shrimp, ShrimpNews, August 2004. Archived URL last accessed 2007-02-15.
• Rosenberry, B.: Shrimp Feeds, ShrimpNews, August 2004. URL last accessed 2005-06-28.
• Rosenberry, B.: The Rise and Fall of Chloramphenicol, ShrimpNews, May 2005. Archived URL last accessed 2007-02-15.
• Rosenberry, B.: USA Shrimp Fishermen Dump Their Case on the World's Shrimp Farmers, ShrimpNews, January 2005. Archived URL last accessed 2007-02-15.
• Tacon, A. G. J.: Thematic Review of Feeds and Feed Management Practices in Shrimp Aquaculture （页面存档备份，存于）, World Bank/NACA/WWF/FAO Consortium Program on Shrimp Farming and the Environment, 2002.
• Tanavud, Ch.; Yongchalermchai, Ch.; Bennui, A.; Densrisereekul, O.: "The Expansion of Inland Shrimp Farming and Its Environmental Impacts in Songkla Lake Basin", Kasetsart J. (Nat. Sci.) 35, pp. 326–343; 2001. URL last accessed 2007-10-12.
• Thai Farmers Research Center: U.S. Bans Shrimp: Thailand Must Adjust. URL last accessed 2005-08-19.
• Valiela, I.; Bowen, J. L.; York, J. K.: Mangrove forests: One of the world's threatened major tropical environments. Bioscience 51(10), pp. 807 – 815, 2001.
• van Wyk, P.; Davis-Hodgkins, M.; Laramore, R.; Main, K.L.; Mountain, J.; Scarpa, J.: Farming Marine Shrimp in Recirculating Freshwater Systems, Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institution（HBOI）Manual, 1999.
• Wilkinson, S.: "The use of lime, gypsum, alum and potassium permanganate in water quality management （页面存档备份，存于）", Aquaculture Asia 2(2), April–June 2002; pp. 12-14. ISSN 0859-600X. URL last accessed 2007-10-12.
• World Rainforest Movement: Unsustainable versus sustainable shrimp production, WRM Bulletin 51, October 2001.

• FAO Fisheries Department: Review of the State of World Aquaculture, FAO Fisheries Circular 886, Rev. 1; FAO, 1997. ISSN 0429-9329.
• Holthuis, L. B.: FAO Species Catalogue, Vol. I: Shrimps and Prawns of the World, FAO Fisheries Synopsis 125, Vol. 1.; FAO, 1980. ISBN 92-5-100896-5.
• McQuaid, J.: Thailand transformed by shrimp boom （页面存档备份，存于）, March 28, 1996. Part of a series for which the newspaper The Times-Picayune, New Orleans, won the 普利策獎in the category "public service" in 1997.
• Network of Aquaculture Centres in Asia-Pacific (NACA) （页面存档备份，存于） has many of the World Bank et al. reports and a lot of current information about shrimp farming in Asia.
• Scampi.nu is a Swedish web site critical of shrimp farming that has many excellent links to English articles.
• Mai Po gei wai is a WWF-managed extensive shrimp farm in Hong Kong.
• 蒙特雷灣水族館'Seafood Guide' offers good information on choosing Sea food that is caught using sustainable and environmentally aware methods.
• Shrimp farming, from 綠色和平。