語言模塊
语言模块，又称为“语言官能 ”，是人脑或认知系统中的一种假设结构，含有与生俱来的语言能力，最初由诺姆·乔姆斯基提出。目前關於大腦模塊化的研究正在认知科学和神经科学領域進行，不過目前的觀點相較於喬姆斯基和傑瑞·福多在1980年代所提出的觀點弱上許多。在今日術語中，模塊化指的是專門化處理：語言處理在大腦中是專門化的，這意指語言處理是局部發生在不同的區域，不同於像是視覺輸入這種其它類型的資訊處理。目前的觀點認為，語言既非發生在分隔的區域，也不是基於像喬治·萊考夫所提出的那種通用的加工原則，而是在某種程度上模塊化的，被認為是認知功能中的一個特定的認知技巧或認知區域。[1][2][3]
模块的含义
人脑中「语言专用模块」的概念，起源于喬姆斯基的普遍文法 （UG）理论。由於对语言模块性问题的理解不同而引發了爭論。[4] 但是，在文献中存在一些共识，即认为模块是以資訊封装的方式处理特定表徵（ 领域特定性 ）（Bryson和Stein，2001） [5] [6] 。 [7] 应当對「解剖模块性」和「功能模块性」作出区分，前者認為在大脑中存在一个負責处理相關歷程的「区域」，而後者则取消了解剖模块性，認為資訊封装分散在大脑的各個部分中。 [8]
没有单一的解剖模块
现有证据指出，沒有一個解剖區域專門用來處理語言。瓦達測試（Wada test）使用異戊巴比妥鈉來麻醉一个腦半球 ，结果表明左半球對語言處理至关重要。[9] 然而，神经成像的結果指出，語言處理並非只有單獨區域涉及，而是由許多不同區域涉及語言處理中的不同環節，[10] [11] [12]不只是存在於左半球。[13] 此外，個別區域似乎具有許多不同的功能。[14] 因此，在解剖模块内发生语言处理的程度被視為輕微的。 然而，正如许多人所建议的那样，即使語言處理是在整个大脑中進行，语言处理依然可以是模块性处理[15] [16]。亦即，语言处理可以在功能模块中进行。
没有雙重分離的習得或发展
一種用於证明模块性的常见方法，是找到一个雙重分離。這會分成兩組，第一組是語言能力嚴重受損但認知能力正常的人，第二組則是認知能力嚴重受損但語言能力完好的人。[17][18][19] 虽然在左半球臨側裂區（perisylvian area）的广泛病变，可能會使人無法產生或感知語言（完全性失语症），[20] 但是沒有一種已知個案，在面临严重的非語言性恶化時，語言能夠完全完好無損。[21] 因此，基於這一證據，語言處理不能被賦予功能模塊的地位。
然而，來自發展研究（Development studies）用來支持語言模塊的證據也被提出（最着名的是史迪芬·平克[22]），即所谓「特定型語言障礙和威廉氏症候群之間的分离現象（dissociation）」，前者是語言混亂，而其他心智能力則不受影響，[23] 後者則是存在嚴重的心智缺陷，語言能力卻倖免於難[24]。更近期和實證性強的研究表明，這些主張可能不正確，因此大大削弱了對分離現象的支持。 舉例來說，布洛克[25]還有Mervis和Beccera的回顧工作[26]证明，威廉氏症候群患者的語言能力並不比失去語言能力的患者的預測表現還要好。 另外，關於特定型語言障礙究竟是一種語言障礙，還是病因來自更普遍的認知問題（如語音），有著相當多的爭論。[27][28][29][30] 因此，目前還沒有找到證明模塊性所需的證據，即保持完好的語言能力卻有嚴重的智力退化。因此，發展資料的證據幾乎無法證明語言處理發生在模塊中。
因此，雙重分離的證據未能佐證模塊性，雖然缺乏分離並不能證明模塊是錯的，但是該結果並無法從邏輯上推論出模塊性。
缺乏資訊的封装
如果語言是一個模塊，它的確會是資訊封裝的。 然而，有證據表明事實並非如此。例如，在麥格克效應（McGurk effect）中，看著說某個音素的唇型，同時卻播放另一個音素，就產生了混合音素的知覺。[31][32] 另外，坦恩豪斯（Tanenhaus）、斯皮维-諾爾頓（Spivey-Knowlton）、埃伯哈德（Eberhard）和塞迪维（Sedivy）（1995年）證明，視覺資訊會介入句法處理。此外，假定的語言模塊應該只會處理與語言有關的資訊（即领域特定性）， 然而，有證據表明，用於輔助語言的區域也介入了運動控制[33]]和非語言的聲音理解。[34]雖然在低於當前成像技術的分辨率下，仍可能會發生分離現象的處理過程，但是將所有證據綜合起來後，資訊封裝的根据就變得很薄弱。
替代理論
另一種觀點認為，語言發生在一個更普遍的認知系統中。[35] 對此的反驳则是，人类语言似乎有著「特殊性」[36] 。這通常有著證據支持，例如所有教導動物人類語言的嘗試都失敗了（Hauser et al. 2003年），以及語言可以被有選擇地破壞（單一的分離現象）[37] 。這些證據表明，語言處理可能需要專用的計算。 理論家們沒有假設「純粹的」模塊性，而是選擇了一個較弱的版本，即在功能特定的神經電路和計算中，實現領域特定性。例如，按杰肯道夫（Jackendoff）和平克的话来说「我們不該以一個整體，而是以成分結合的方式來研究語言，其中一些成分是語言特有的，另一些成分則是根植於更普遍的能力」[38]
相關辩论仍在持續进行。
参考文献
- Schwarz-Friesel, Monika. . Francke. 2008. ISBN 3825216365.
- Goel, Vinod. . Trends in Cognitive Sciences. 2007, 11 (10): 435–441 [2020-07-06]. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2007.09.003.
- Kiely, Kim. . Michalos, Kim M. (编). . Springer. 2014 [2020-06-15]. doi:10.1007/978-94-007-0753-5_426. （原始内容存档于2022-06-15）.
- Coltheart, M. (1999). Modularity and cognition. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 3, 115–120
- Bryson, J. J. (2002). Language isn’t quite that special （页面存档备份，存于）. Brain and Behavioral Sciences, 25 (6), 679–680
- Fodor, J. A. (1983). The Modularity of Mind. Bradford Books. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA
- Flombaum, J. I., Santos, L. R., & Hauser, M. D. (2002). Neuroecology and psychological modularity （页面存档备份，存于）. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 6 (3), 106–108
- Calabretta, R., Di Ferdinando, A., Wagner, G. P., & Parisi, D. (2003). What does it take to evolve behaviorally complex organisms? BioSystems, 69, 245–262
- Wada, J., & Rasmussen, T. (1960). Intracarotid injection of Sodium Amytal for the lateralization of cerebral speech dominance. Experimental and clinical observations. Journal of Neurosurgery, 17, 266–282
- Raichle, M.E. (1988). Positron emission tomographic studies of the cortical anatomy of single-word processing. Nature, 331, 585–589.
- Martin, R. C. (2003). Language processing: Functional organization and neuroanatomical basis. Annual Review of Psychology, 54, 55–90
- Binder, J., & Price, C. (2001). Functional imaging of language. In R. Cabeza and A. Kingstone (Eds.), Handbook of Functional Neuroimaging of Cognition (pp. 187–251). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press
- Robertson, D. A., Gernsbacher, M.A., Guidotti, S.J., Robertson, R.R., Irwin, W., Mock, B.J., & Campana, E. (2000). Functional neuroanatomy of the cognitive process of mapping during discourse comprehension （页面存档备份，存于）. Psychological Science, 11, 255–60
- Grodinsky, Y. (2006). The language faculty, Broca’s region, and the mirror system. Cortex, 42 (4), 464–468
- Pinker, S. (1997). How The Mind Works. Harmondsworth: Penguin
- von der Malsburg, C. (1995). Binding in models of perception and brain function. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 5, 520–52
- Dunn, J. C., & Kirsner, K. (2003). What can we infer from double dissociations? （页面存档备份，存于） Cortex, 39, 1–7
- Coltheart, M., & Davies, M. (2003). Inference and explanation in cognitive neuropsychology. Cortex, 39, 188–191
- Moscovitch, M. & Umiltà, C. (1990). Modularity and neuropsychology: implications for the organization of attention and memory in normal and brain-damaged people. In M. F. Schwartz (Ed.), Modular Deficits in Alzheimertype dementia. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press
- Goodglass, H., & Kaplan, E. (1972). The Assessment of Aphasia and Related Disorders. Philadelphia, PA: Lea & Febiger
- Levy, Y. (1996). Modularity of language reconsidered. Brain & Language, 55 (2), 240–263
- Pinker, S. (1994). The language instinct: How the mind creates language, pp. 37–43. New York: W. Morrow
- van der Lely, H. K. J. (2005). Domain-Specific Cognitive Systems: Insight from Grammatical Specific Language Impairment （页面存档备份，存于）, Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 9 (2), 53–59
- Bellugi, U., Marks, S., Bihrle, A., & Sabo, H. (1988). Dissociation between language and cognitive functions in Williams syndrome. In D. Bishop and K. Mogford (Eds.), Language development in exceptional circumstances (pp. 177–189). London: Churchill Livingstone
- Brock, J. (2007). Language abilities in Williams syndrome: A critical review （页面存档备份，存于）. Development and Psychopathology, 19, 97–127
- Mervis, C. B., & Beccera, A. M. (2007). Language and communicative development in Williams Syndrome. Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities Research Reviews, 13, 3–15
- Norbury, C., Bishop, D. V. M., & Briscoe, J. (2001). Production of English finite verb morphology: A Comparison of SLI and mildmoderate hearing impairment （页面存档备份，存于）. Journal of Speech, Language and Hearing Research, 44, 165–178
- Leonard, L. 1998, Children with Specific Language Impairment. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press
- Bishop, D. V. M. (1994). Grammatical errors in specific language impairment: Competence or performance limitations. Applied Psycholinguistics, 15, 507–550
- Kail, R. (1994). A method for studying the generalized slowing hypothesis in children with specific language impairment. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 37, 418–421
- McGurk, H., & MacDonald, J. (1976). Hearing lips and seeing voices. Nature, 264 (5588), 746–748
- Carston, R. (1996). The architecture of the mind: modularity and modularization. In D. Green et al. (Eds.), Cognitive Science: An Introduction (pp. 53–83). Cambridge: Blackwell
- Heiser, M., Iacoboni, M., Maeda, F., Marcus, J., & Mazziotta, J.C. (2003). The essential role of Broca's area in imitation. European Journal of Neuroscience, 17, 1123–1128
- Saygin, A. P., Dick, F., Wilson, S. M., Dronkers, N. F., & Bates, E. (2003). Neural resources for processing language and environmental sounds: Evidence from aphasia. Brain, 126 (4), 928–945
- Rumelhart, D. E., & McClelland, J. L. (1986) PDP models and general issues in cognitive science. In D. E. Rumelhart, J. L. McClelland, and the PDP Research Group (Eds.), Parallel distributed processing: Explorations in the microstructure of cognition. Volume 1: Foundations. Cambridge, MA: Bradford Books/MIT Press
- Pinker, S., & Jackendoff, R. (2005). The faculty of language: What’s special about it? Cognition, 95, 201–236
- Pulvermuller, F. (2003). The Neuroscience of Language. On Brain Circuits of Words and Serial Order. UK, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
- Jackendoff, R. & Pinker, S. (2005) The nature of the language faculty and its implications for evolution of language (Reply to Fitch, Hauser, & Chomsky) Cognition, 97 (2), 211–225, page 223
进一步阅读
- Altmann, G. T. M. (2001). The mechanics of language: Psycholinguistics in review. The British Journal of Psychology, 92, 129–170.
- Bauer, R. M., & Zawacki, T. (2000). Auditory Agnosia and Amusia. In M.J. Farah and T.E. Feinberg (Eds.), Patient-Based Approaches to Cognitive Neuroscience, (pp. 97–106). New York: McGraw-Hill.
- Breedin, S. D., & Saffran, E. M. (1999). Sentence processing in the face of semantic loss: A case study （页面存档备份，存于）. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 128, 547–62.
- Breedin, S. D., Saffran, E. M., & Coslett, H. B. (1999). Reversal of the concreteness effect in a patient with semantic dementia （页面存档备份，存于）. Cognitive Neuropsychology, 11, 617–60.
- Colledge, E., Bishop, D., Koeppen-Schomerus, G., Price, T., Happe, F., Eley, T., Dale, P. S., & Plomin, R. (2002). The structure of language abilities at 4 years: A twin study. Developmental Psychology, 38, 749–757.
- Dapretto, M., & Bookheimer, S. Y. (1999). Form and content: Dissociating syntax and semantics in sentence comprehension （页面存档备份，存于）. Neuron, 24, 427–32.
- Fodor, J. A. (1983). The Modularity of Mind. Bradford Books. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.
- Garrard, P., Carroll, E., Vinson, D. P., & Vigliocco, G. (2004). Dissociating lexico-semantics and lexico-syntax in semantic dementia. Neurocase, 10, 353–362.
- Grafman, J., Passafiume, D., Faglioni, P., & Boller, F. (1982) Calculation disturbances in adults with focal hemispheric damage （页面存档备份，存于）. Cortex, 18, 37–50.
- Griffiths T. D., Rees, A., & Green, G. G. R. (1999). Disorders of human complex sound processing. Neurocase, 5, 365–378
- Hauser, M. D., Chomsky, N., & Fitch, W. T. (2002). The faculty of language: What is it, who has it, and how does it evolve? Science, 298, 1569–1579.
- Hickok, G., & Poeppel, D. (2000). Towards a functional neuroanatomy of speech perception （页面存档备份，存于）. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 4 (4), 131–138.
- Hill, E. L. (2001). Non-specific nature of specific language impairment: A review of the literature with regard to concomitant motor impairments （页面存档备份，存于）. International Journal of Language & Communication Disorders / Royal College of Speech & Language Therapists, 36 (2), 149–171.
- Kahn, H. J., & Whitaker, H.A. (1991). Acalculia: an historical review of localization. Brain Cognition, 17, 102–15.
- Luzzatti, C., Aggujaro, S., & Crepaldi, D. (2006). Verb-noun double dissociations in aphasia: Theoretical and neuroanatomical foundations （页面存档备份，存于）. Cortex, 42 (6):875–83.
- Marcus, G. F. (2006). Cognitive Architecture and Descent with Modification. Cognition, 101, 443–465.
- Marslen-Wilson, W.D., & Tyler, L.K. (1987). Against modularity. In J. L.Garfield (Ed.), Modularity in Knowledge Representation and Natural Language Understanding. Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press.
- Martins, I.P. & Farrajota, L. (in press). Proper and common names: A double dissociation. Neuropsychologica.
- Mattys, S. L., Melhorn, J. F., & White, L. (in press). Effects of syntactic expectations on speech segmentation. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance.
- Mattys, S.L., Pleydell-Pearce, C. W., Melhorn, J.F., & Whitecross, S.E. (2005). Detecting silent pauses in speech: A new tool for measuring on-line lexical and semantic processing. Psychological Science, 16, 958–964.
- Miozzo, M., & Gordon, P. (2005). Facts, Events, and Inflection: When Language and Memory Dissociate. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 17, 1074–1086.
- Moss, H. E., Abdallah, S., Acres, K., Fletcher, P., Pilgrim, L., & Tyler, L. K. (2003). The role of the left inferior frontal gyrus in semantic selection and competition. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 15, Suppl. A161.
- Patterson, K. E., & Marcel, A. J. (1977). Aphasia, dyslexia, and phonological coding of written words （页面存档备份，存于）. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 29, 307–318.
- Poeppel, D. (2001). Pure word deafness and the bilateral processing of the speech code （页面存档备份，存于）. Cognitive Science, 21 (5), 679–693.
- Raichle, M.E. (1988). Positron emission tomographic studies of the cortical anatomy of single-word processing （页面存档备份，存于）. Nature, 331, 585–589.
- Rosselli, M.; Ardila, A. . Neuropsychologia. 1989, 27 (5): 607–617. PMID 2739887. doi:10.1016/0028-3932(89)90107-3.
- Tanenhaus, M. K., Spivey-Knowlton, M. J., Eberhard, K. M., Sedivy, J. C., Allopenna, P. D., & Magnuson, J. S. (1996). Eye movements and spoken language comprehension （页面存档备份，存于）. In the Proceedings of the 34th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics.
- Thomas, M., & Karmiloff-Smith, A. (2002). Are developmental disorders like cases of adult brain damage? Implications from connectionist modelling （页面存档备份，存于）. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 25, 727–788.
- Tooby, J., & Cosmides, L. (1992) The psychological foundations of culture. In J. Barkow, L. Cosmides, & J. Tooby (Eds.), The adapted mind: Evolutionary psychology and the generation of culture （页面存档备份，存于） (pp. 19–136). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- Trout, J. D. (2001). The biological basis of speech: what to infer from talking to the animals. Psychological Review, 108 (3), 523–549.
- Vouloumanos, A., Kiehl, K., Werker, J.F., & Liddle, P. (2001). Detecting sounds in the auditory stream: Event-related fMRI evidence for differential activation to speech and non-speech. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 13 (7), 994–1005.
- Wang, E., Peach, R. K., Xu, Y., Schneck, M., & Manry, C. (2000). Perception of dynamic acoustic patterns by an individual with unilateral verbal auditory agnosia. Brain and Language, 73, 442–455.
- Warren, R. M., & Warren, R. P. (1970). Auditory illusions and confusions. Scientific American, 223, 30–36.
- Warrington, E.K. (1981). Neuropsychological studies of verbal semantic systems. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B. Biol. Sci., 295, 411–23.
- Zeki S. (2005). The Ferrier Lecture 1995 behind the seen: The functional specialization of the brain in space and time. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B. Biol. Sci., 360, 1145–83.
This article is issued from Wikipedia. The text is licensed under Creative Commons - Attribution - Sharealike. Additional terms may apply for the media files.