Combined injectable birth control
Background
TypeHormonal
First useBy 1969
Failure rates (first year)
Perfect use0–0.2%[1]
Typical use?
Usage
Duration effect1 month
User reminders?
Advantages and disadvantages
STI protectionNo
BenefitsEspecially good if poor pill compliance

Combined injectable contraceptives (CICs) are a form of hormonal birth control for women. They consist of monthly injections of combined formulations containing an estrogen and a progestin to prevent pregnancy.

CICs are different from progestogen-only injectable contraceptives (POICs), such as depot medroxyprogesterone acetate (DMPA; brand names Depo-Provera, Depo-SubQ Provera 104) and norethisterone enantate (NETE; brand name Noristerat), which are not combined with an estrogen and are given once every two to three months instead of once a month.[2]

Hormonal contraception works primarily by preventing ovulation, but it may also thicken the cervical mucus inhibiting sperm penetration.[3][4][5] Hormonal contraceptives also have effects on the endometrium,[6][7] that theoretically could affect implantation.[8][9][10][11]

Medical uses

CICs are administered by intramuscular injection into the deltoid, gluteus maximus, or anterior thigh.[1] They are ideally administered every 28 to 30 days, though they have been demonstrated to be effective up to 33 days.[1]

Some CICs have been said to be used by transgender women as a means of feminizing hormone therapy as well.[12]

Available forms

Combined injectable contraceptives marketed for clinical use
CompositionDoseVehicleBrand NamesAvailability
Estradiol valerate / Norethisterone enantate5 mg /
50 mg		Oil solutionMultiple[lower-alpha 1]Approved in at least 36 countries
Estradiol cypionate / Medroxyprogesterone acetate5 mg /
25 mg		Microcrystalline aqueous suspensionMultiple[lower-alpha 2]Approved in at least 18 countries
Estradiol enantate / Algestone acetophenidea10 mg /
150 mg		Oil solutionMultiple[lower-alpha 3]Approved in at least 19 countries
5 mg /
75 mg		Oil solutionAnafertin†, Patector NF, YectamesApproved at least 9 countries
10 mg /
120 mg		Oil solutionUnalmes, YectunaApproved in at least 3 countries
10 mg /
75 mg		Oil solutionOva Repos†Discontinued (firm was in Spain)
Estradiol benzoate butyrate / Algestone acetophenide10 mg /
150 mg		Oil solution?Redimen, Soluna, Unijab, Unimens§Approved in Peru and Singapore
Estradiol valerate / Hydroxyprogesterone caproate5 mg /
250 mg		Oil solutionChinese Injectable No. 1Approved in China
Estradiol / Megestrol acetate3.5 mg /
25 mg		Microcrystalline aqueous suspensionChinese Injectable No. 2, Mego-EApproved in China
Estradiol cypionate / Hydroxyprogesterone caproate5 mg /
250 mg		Oil solution?Sinbios†Discontinued (firm was in Mexico)
Estradiol valerate / Estradiol benzoate / Hydroxyprogesterone caproate10 mg /
1 mg /
250 mg		Oil solution?Sin-Ol†Discontinued (firm was in Mexico)
Notes: All are given by intramuscular injection once a month. Footnotes: † = Discontinued. § = Never marketed. a = Unsorted brand names (doses unknown; for E2-EN/DHPATooltip estradiol enantate/algestone acetophenide): Evitas† and Femineo†. Sources: [13][2][14][15][16][17][18][19][20][21][22][23]
  1. ↑ Chinese Injectable No. 3, Efectimes, Ginediol, Mesigyna, Mesilar, Meslart, Mesocept, Mesygest, Nofertyl, Nofertyl Lafrancol, Noregyna, Norestrin, Norifam, Norigynon, Nostidyn, Sexseg, Solouna
  2. ↑ Ciclofem, Ciclofemina, Cyclofem, Cyclofemina, Cyclogeston, Femelin, Femydrol, Gestin, Harmonis, Lunella, Lunelle†, Novafem
  3. ↑ Acefil, Agurin†, Atrimon†, Ciclomes, Ciclovar, Ciclovular, Cicnor†, Clinomin, Cycloven, Daiva, Damix, Deladroxate§, Deprans, Deproxone, Exuna, Ginestest, Ginoplan†, Gynomes, Horprotal, Listen, Luvonal, Neogestar, Neolutin, Nomagest, Nonestrol, Normagest, Normensil, Novular, Oterol, Ovoginal, Patector, Patectro, Perludil, Perlumes, Perlutal, Perlutale, Perlutan, Perlutin, Perlutin-Unifarma, Permisil, Preg-Less, Pregnolan, Primyfar†, Progestrol†, Protegin, Proter, Seguralmes, Synovular, Topasel, Unigalen, Uno-Ciclo, Vagital

A variety of different CICs, generally containing a short-acting natural estradiol ester and a long-acting progestin ester, are available for clinical use.[24][15][2][16][13] Estrogens that are used include estradiol valerate, estradiol cypionate, estradiol enantate, estradiol benzoate butyrate, and estradiol, while progestins that are used include norethisterone enantate, medroxyprogesterone acetate, algestone acetophenide (dihydroxyprogesterone acetophenide), hydroxyprogesterone caproate, and megestrol acetate.[15][2][16][13] Estradiol benzoate has a duration that is too short for once-monthly CICs, and is not used in them.[25] Conversely, estradiol enantate is said to have a duration that is too long for once-monthly CICs, but is nonetheless used in them.[25]

Side effects

Side effects of CICs, besides menstrual bleeding changes, are minimal.[26] The most prominent side effects of CICs are menstrual irregularities during the first 3 to 6 months of use.[1] Dysmenorrhea has been reported in 30 to 65% of women.[26] Other side effects include breast tenderness/pain, headache, and libido changes.[26] Some fluid retention can occur, but weight gain is minimal.[26] Local injection site reactions have also been reported in 15 to 35% of women.[26]

Effects of CICs on coagulation and fibrinolysis are minimal and are not thought to be clinically relevant.[27] Conversely, combined oral contraceptive pills containing ethinylestradiol have considerable effects on coagulation and fibrinolysis.[27] The differences can be attributed to the lack of the first-pass effect with parenteral administration as well as structural and pharmacological differences between estradiol and ethinylestradiol.[28][29]

Pharmacology

Idealized curves of estradiol levels over a period of 30 days after injection of different estradiol esters in women.[16]

CICs contain an estrogen and a progestin. The estrogen is generally a short-acting estradiol ester, which acts as a prodrug of estradiol.[24] Esters of estradiol are natural and bioidentical estrogens, and are believed to have more favorable effects on lipid metabolism, cardiovascular health, and hemostasis than synthetic estrogens such as ethinylestradiol.[30][31][32] The progestin is a long-acting progestogen ester, which may or may not act as a prodrug.[24] Progesterone derivatives including medroxyprogesterone acetate, algestone acetophenide (dihydroxyprogesterone acetophenide), hydroxyprogesterone caproate, and megestrol acetate are active themselves and are not prodrugs, whereas the testosterone derivative norethisterone enantate is a prodrug of norethisterone. Regardless of whether they are prodrugs or not, steroid esters form a depot and have an extended duration of action due to a depot effect when administered by intramuscular or subcutaneous injection.

Because CICs are administered parenterally, they bypass the first-pass effect in the liver and intestines that occurs with oral administration of estrogens.[24] However, is estimated that about 20% of an administered dose does still eventually pass through the liver.[24] Hence, these preparations are not completely liver-neutral.[24] Nonetheless, they have dramatically reduced hepatic effects relative to oral ethinylestradiol.[28] In addition, parenteral estradiol in general has about 4- or 5-fold reduced potency in the liver than oral estradiol.[28]

Hormone levels following a single intramuscular injection of estradiol valerate/norethisterone enanthate (5 mg/50 mg) (Mesigyna) in healthy young men.[33] Testosterone levels were maximally suppressed by about 94%, to ~30 ng/dL, when measured at day 7 post-injection.[33]

CICs have antigonadotropic effects via their estrogenic and progestogenic activity and inhibit fertility and suppress sex hormone levels. A single intramuscular injection of estradiol valerate/norethisterone enanthate (5 mg/50 mg) (Mesigyna) has been found to strongly suppress testosterone levels in men.[33] Testosterone levels decreased from a baseline of ~503 ng/dL to a trough of ~30 ng/dL (a 94% decrease) which occurred at day 7 post-injection.[33]

Estradiol levels with combined injectable contraceptives[16]
Preparation Form Dose Estradiol Cmax Estradiol Tmax
EV/NETE Oil solution 5 mg/50 mg 232–428 pg/mL 2 days
EC/MPA Aqueous suspension 5 mg/25 mg 184–736 pg/mL 2–4 days
EEn/DHPA Oil solution 10 mg/150 mg 314–317 pg/mL 4.2–8.1 days
5 mg/75 mg 148 pg/mL 6.5 days
Potencies and durations of natural estrogens by intramuscular injection
EstrogenFormDose (mg)Duration by dose (mg)
EPDCICD
EstradiolAq. soln. ?–<1 d
Oil soln.40–60–1–2 ≈ 1–2 d
Aq. susp. ?3.50.5–2 ≈ 2–7 d; 3.5 ≈ >5 d
Microsph. ?–1 ≈ 30 d
Estradiol benzoateOil soln.25–35–1.66 ≈ 2–3 d; 5 ≈ 3–6 d
Aq. susp.20–10 ≈ 16–21 d
Emulsion ?–10 ≈ 14–21 d
Estradiol dipropionateOil soln.25–30–5 ≈ 5–8 d
Estradiol valerateOil soln.20–3055 ≈ 7–8 d; 10 ≈ 10–14 d;
40 ≈ 14–21 d; 100 ≈ 21–28 d
Estradiol benz. butyrateOil soln. ?1010 ≈ 21 d
Estradiol cypionateOil soln.20–30–5 ≈ 11–14 d
Aq. susp. ?55 ≈ 14–24 d
Estradiol enanthateOil soln. ?5–1010 ≈ 20–30 d
Estradiol dienanthateOil soln. ?–7.5 ≈ >40 d
Estradiol undecylateOil soln. ?–10–20 ≈ 40–60 d;
25–50 ≈ 60–120 d
Polyestradiol phosphateAq. soln.40–60–40 ≈ 30 d; 80 ≈ 60 d;
160 ≈ 120 d
EstroneOil soln. ?–1–2 ≈ 2–3 d
Aq. susp. ?–0.1–2 ≈ 2–7 d
EstriolOil soln. ?–1–2 ≈ 1–4 d
Polyestriol phosphateAq. soln. ?–50 ≈ 30 d; 80 ≈ 60 d
Notes and sources
Notes: All aqueous suspensions are of microcrystalline particle size. Estradiol production during the menstrual cycle is 30–640 µg/d (6.4–8.6 mg total per month or cycle). The vaginal epithelium maturation dosage of estradiol benzoate or estradiol valerate has been reported as 5 to 7 mg/week. An effective ovulation-inhibiting dose of estradiol undecylate is 20–30 mg/month. Sources: See template.
Parenteral potencies and durations of progestogens[lower-alpha 1][lower-alpha 2]
Compound Form Dose for specific uses (mg)[lower-alpha 3] DOA[lower-alpha 4]
TFD[lower-alpha 5] POICD[lower-alpha 6] CICD[lower-alpha 7]
Algestone acetophenideOil soln.-–75–15014–32 d
Gestonorone caproateOil soln.25–50––8–13 d
Hydroxyprogest. acetate[lower-alpha 8]Aq. susp.350––9–16 d
Hydroxyprogest. caproateOil soln.250–500[lower-alpha 9]–250–5005–21 d
Medroxyprog. acetateAq. susp.50–1001502514–50+ d
Megestrol acetateAq. susp.-–25>14 d
Norethisterone enanthateOil soln.100–2002005011–52 d
ProgesteroneOil soln.200[lower-alpha 9]––2–6 d
Aq. soln. ?––1–2 d
Aq. susp.50–200––7–14 d
Notes and sources:
  1. ↑ Sources: [34][35][36][37][38][39][40][41][42][43][44][45][46][47][48][49][50][51][52]
  2. ↑ All given by intramuscular or subcutaneous injection.
  3. ↑ Progesterone production during the luteal phase is ~25 (15–50) mg/day. The OIDTooltip ovulation-inhibiting dose of OHPC is 250 to 500 mg/month.
  4. ↑ Duration of action in days.
  5. ↑ Usually given for 14 days.
  6. ↑ Usually dosed every two to three months.
  7. ↑ Usually dosed once monthly.
  8. ↑ Never marketed or approved by this route.
  9. 1 2 In divided doses (2 × 125 or 250 mg for OHPC, 10 × 20 mg for P4).

History

The first CIC to be studied was estradiol valerate/hydroxyprogesterone caproate (EV/OHPC) in 1963, and the second CIC to be studied was estradiol enantate/algestone acetophenide (E2-EN/DHPA) in 1964.[26][25] In 1967, E2-EN/DHPA was in the late stages of clinical development.[53][26] By 1969, the medication was available for medical use under the brand name Perlutal.[54] Within a few years, it was marketed under other brand names such as Topasel and Ova-Repos as well.[55][56][57][58] In addition, several other CICs had been introduced for medical use by 1972.[58] By 1976, two major CICs were in use: E2-EN/DHPA (brand names Perlutan, Topasel) in Spain and Latin America, and EV/OHPC (brand name Injectable No. 1) in China.[59] These CICs have been described as first-generation CICs.[59] Two second-generation CICs, estradiol cypionate/medroxyprogesterone acetate (EC/MPA; brand names Cyclofem and later Lunelle) and estradiol valerate/norethisterone enantate (EV/NETE; brand name Mesigyna), were introduced for clinical use in 1993.[60][14][15] On 5 October 2000, Pharmacia received FDA approval for Lunelle Monthly Contraceptive Injection.[1] In April 2003, Pharmacia was acquired by Pfizer (makers of depot medroxyprogesterone acetate). In October 2003, Lunelle was discontinued in the United States.

Society and culture

Availability

Known availability of CICs in countries throughout the world (as of September 2018).

CICs are available in many countries throughout the world, including widely throughout Central and South America, in Mexico and the Caribbean, in China, in several Southeast Asian and African countries, and in Turkey.[21][22][23][13][2][14][15][16][17] They were also previously available in the United States, Portugal, and Spain, but have been discontinued in these countries.[22][23]

Research

Many other CICs have been studied but have not been approved or marketed for clinical use.[15][16][61][25][62][2]

The following are marketed CICs at different doses than those that are approved:

The half-progestin-dose formulation of estradiol valerate/norethisterone enantate (5 mg / 25 mg) is also known as HRP-103 and the half-progestin-dose formulation of estradiol cypionate/medroxyprogesterone acetate (5 mg / 12.5 mg) is also known as HRP-113.[63]

The following are CICs that have never been marketed:

See also

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 "FDA Approves Combined Monthly Injectable Contraceptive". Contraception Report. 12 (3). 2001. Archived from the original on September 26, 2006.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Bagade O, Pawar V, Patel R, Patel B, Awasarkar V, Diwate S (2014). "Increasing use of long-acting reversible contraception: safe, reliable, and cost-effective birth control" (PDF). World J Pharm Pharm Sci. 3 (10): 364–392. ISSN 2278-4357. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-08-10. Retrieved 2016-08-24.
  3. ↑ Tamara Callahan MD , Aaron Caughey MD , Blueprints Obstetrics and Gynecology, 2013
  4. ↑ KD Tripathi , Essentials of Medical Pharmacology, 2013
  5. ↑ Dc Dutta's Textbook of Obstetrics, 2014
  6. ↑ K. A. Petrie, A. H. Torgal, C. L. Westhoff, Matched-pairs analysis of ovarian suppressionduring oral vs. vaginal hormonal contraceptive use, „Contraception” 2011, t. 84, p. e2-3
  7. ↑ R. L. Birtch, O. A. Olatunbosum, R. A. Pierson, Ovarian follicular dynamics during conventional vs continuous oral contraceptive use, „Contraception” 2006, t. 73, p. 235. p. 239.
  8. ↑ K. Bugge, K. S. Richter, J. Bromer, et al., Pregnancy rates following in vitro fertilization are reduced with a thin endometrium, but are unrelated to endometrial thickness above 10 millimeters,„Fertility and Sterility” 2004, t. 82, p. S199.
  9. ↑ T. Fiumino, A. Kuwata, A. Teranischi et al., Significance of endometrium thickness to evaluate endometrial receptivity for embryos in natural cycle, „Fertility and Sterility” 2008, t. 90,p. S159.
  10. ↑ K. S. Richter, K. R. Bugge, J. G. Bromer, Relationship between endometrial thickness and embryo implantation, based on 1. 294 cycles of in vitro fertilization with transfer of two blastocyst-stage embryos, „Fertility and Sterility” 2007, t. 87, p. 53.
  11. ↑ Rivera R, Yacobson I, Grimes D (1999). "The mechanism of action of hormonal contraceptives and intrauterine contraceptive devices". Am J Obstet Gynecol. 181 (5 Pt 1): 1263–9. doi:10.1016/S0002-9378(99)70120-1. PMID 10561657.
  12. ↑ Don Kulick (12 January 2009). Travesti: Sex, Gender, and Culture among Brazilian Transgendered Prostitutes. University of Chicago Press. pp. 64–66. ISBN 978-0-226-46101-4.
  13. 1 2 3 4 IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans; International Agency for Research on Cancer (1 January 1999). Hormonal Contraception and Post-menopausal Hormonal Therapy (PDF). IARC. p. 65. ISBN 978-92-832-1272-0.
  14. 1 2 3 Pramilla Senanayake; Malcolm Potts (14 April 2008). Atlas of Contraception, Second Edition. CRC Press. pp. 50–. ISBN 978-0-203-34732-4.
  15. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Newton JR, D'arcangues C, Hall PE (1994). "A review of "once-a-month" combined injectable contraceptives". J Obstet Gynaecol (Lahore). 4 Suppl 1: S1–34. doi:10.3109/01443619409027641. PMID 12290848.
  16. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Garza-Flores J (April 1994). "Pharmacokinetics of once-a-month injectable contraceptives". Contraception. 49 (4): 347–59. doi:10.1016/0010-7824(94)90032-9. PMID 8013219.
  17. 1 2 IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans; World Health Organization; International Agency for Research on Cancer (2007). Combined Estrogen-progestogen Contraceptives and Combined Estrogen-progestogen Menopausal Therapy. World Health Organization. pp. 431–. ISBN 978-92-832-1291-1.
  18. ↑ Klitsch M (1995). "Still waiting for the contraceptive revolution". Fam Plann Perspect. 27 (6): 246–53. doi:10.2307/2136177. JSTOR 2136177. PMID 8666089.
  19. ↑ Gallo MF, Grimes DA, Lopez LM, Schulz KF, d'Arcangues C (2013). "Combination injectable contraceptives for contraception". Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 3: CD004568. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD004568.pub3. PMC 6513542. PMID 23641480.
  20. ↑ Harry W. Rudel; Fred A. Kinel (September 1972). "Oral Contraceptives. Human Fertility Studies and Side Effects". In M. Tausk (ed.). Pharmacology of the Endocrine System and Related Drugs: Progesterone, Progestational Drugs and Antifertility Agents. Vol. II. Pergamon Press. pp. 385–469. ISBN 978-0080168128. OCLC 278011135.
  21. 1 2 "International Drug Names from". Drugs.com. Retrieved 2022-04-30.
  22. 1 2 3 Sweetman, Sean C., ed. (2009). "Sex hormones and their modulators". Martindale: The Complete Drug Reference (36th ed.). London: Pharmaceutical Press. p. 2082. ISBN 978-0-85369-840-1.
  23. 1 2 3 "Micromedex Products: Please Login".
  24. 1 2 3 4 5 6 V. Unzeitig; Rick H.W. van Lunsen (15 February 2000). Contraceptive Choices and Realities: Proceedings of the 5th Congress of the European Society of Contraception. CRC Press. pp. 133, 136. ISBN 978-1-85070-067-8.
  25. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Toppozada MK (April 1994). "Existing once-a-month combined injectable contraceptives". Contraception. 49 (4): 293–301. doi:10.1016/0010-7824(94)90029-9. PMID 8013216.
  26. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Benagiano, G.; Primiero, F.M. (1983). "Long Acting Contraceptives Present Status". Drugs. 25 (6): 570–609. doi:10.2165/00003495-198325060-00003. ISSN 0012-6667. PMID 6223801. S2CID 45898359.
  27. 1 2 "Facts about once-a-month injectable contraceptives: memorandum from a WHO meeting". Bull. World Health Organ. 71 (6): 677–89. 1993. PMC 2393537. PMID 8313486.
  28. 1 2 3 Kuhl H (2005). "Pharmacology of estrogens and progestogens: influence of different routes of administration" (PDF). Climacteric. 8 Suppl 1: 3–63. doi:10.1080/13697130500148875. PMID 16112947. S2CID 24616324.
  29. ↑ von Schoultz, Bo; Carlström, Kjell; Collste, Lars; Eriksson, Ambjörn; Henriksson, Peter; Pousette, Åke; Stege, Reinhard (1989). "Estrogen therapy and liver function—metabolic effects of oral and parenteral administration". The Prostate. 14 (4): 389–395. doi:10.1002/pros.2990140410. ISSN 0270-4137. PMID 2664738. S2CID 21510744.
  30. ↑ Michael Oettel; Ekkehard Schillinger (6 December 2012). Estrogens and Antiestrogens II: Pharmacology and Clinical Application of Estrogens and Antiestrogen. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 235–237, 261, 271. ISBN 978-3-642-60107-1. Natural estrogens considered here include: [...] Esters of 17β-estradiol, such as estradiol valerate, estradiol benzoate and estradiol cypionate. Esterification aims at either better absorption after oral administration or a sustained release from the depot after intramuscular administration. During absorption, the esters are cleaved by endogenous esterases and the pharmacologically active 17β-estradiol is released; therefore, the esters are considered as natural estrogens.
  31. ↑ Nagrath Arun; Malhotra Narendra; Seth Shikha (15 December 2012). Progress in Obstetrics and Gynecology--3. Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers Pvt. Ltd. pp. 419–. ISBN 978-93-5090-575-3.
  32. 1 2 3 4 5 Sang GW (April 1994). "Pharmacodynamic effects of once-a-month combined injectable contraceptives". Contraception. 49 (4): 361–85. doi:10.1016/0010-7824(94)90033-7. PMID 8013220.
  33. 1 2 3 4 Valle Alvarez, Doris del Cisne (11 May 2011). Efecto de una Dosis de 50 mg de Enantato de Noretisterona y 5 mg de Valerato de Estradiol en los Niveles de Testosterona Total en Hombres Mexicanos Sanos [Effect of a Dose of 50 mg of Norethisterone Enanthate and 5 mg of Estradiol Valerate on Total Testosterone Levels in Healthy Mexican Men] (MSc). National Polytechnic Institute of Mexico.
  34. ↑ Knörr K, Beller FK, Lauritzen C (17 April 2013). Lehrbuch der Gynäkologie. Springer-Verlag. pp. 214–. ISBN 978-3-662-00942-0.
  35. ↑ Knörr K, Knörr-Gärtner H, Beller FK, Lauritzen C (8 March 2013). Geburtshilfe und Gynäkologie: Physiologie und Pathologie der Reproduktion. Springer-Verlag. pp. 583–. ISBN 978-3-642-95583-9.
  36. ↑ Labhart A (6 December 2012). Clinical Endocrinology: Theory and Practice. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 554–. ISBN 978-3-642-96158-8.
  37. ↑ Horský J, Presl J (1981). "Hormonal Treatment of Disorders of the Menstrual Cycle". In Horsky J, Presl K (eds.). Ovarian Function and its Disorders: Diagnosis and Therapy. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 309–332. doi:10.1007/978-94-009-8195-9_11. ISBN 978-94-009-8195-9.
  38. ↑ Ufer J (1969). The Principles and Practice of Hormone Therapy in Gynaecology and Obstetrics. de Gruyter. p. 49. ISBN 9783110006148. 17α-Hydroxyprogesterone caproate is a depot progestogen which is entirely free of side actions. The dose required to induce secretory changes in primed endometrium is about 250 mg. per menstrual cycle.
  39. ↑ Pschyrembel W (1968). Praktische Gynäkologie: für Studierende und Ärzte. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 598, 601. ISBN 978-3-11-150424-7.
  40. ↑ Ferin J (September 1972). "Effects, Duration of Action and Metabolism in Man". In Tausk M (ed.). Pharmacology of the Endocrine System and Related Drugs: Progesterone, Progestational Drugs and Antifertility Agents. Vol. II. Pergamon Press. pp. 13–24. ISBN 978-0080168128. OCLC 278011135.
  41. ↑ Henzl MR, Edwards JA (10 November 1999). "Pharmacology of Progestins: 17α-Hydroxyprogesterone Derivatives and Progestins of the First and Second Generation". In Sitruk-Ware R, Mishell DR (eds.). Progestins and Antiprogestins in Clinical Practice. Taylor & Francis. pp. 101–132. ISBN 978-0-8247-8291-7.
  42. ↑ Brotherton J (1976). Sex Hormone Pharmacology. Academic Press. p. 114. ISBN 978-0-12-137250-7.
  43. ↑ Sang GW (April 1994). "Pharmacodynamic effects of once-a-month combined injectable contraceptives". Contraception. 49 (4): 361–385. doi:10.1016/0010-7824(94)90033-7. PMID 8013220.
  44. ↑ Toppozada MK (April 1994). "Existing once-a-month combined injectable contraceptives". Contraception. 49 (4): 293–301. doi:10.1016/0010-7824(94)90029-9. PMID 8013216.
  45. ↑ Goebelsmann U (1986). "Pharmacokinetics of Contraceptive Steroids in Humans". In Gregoire AT, Blye RP (eds.). Contraceptive Steroids: Pharmacology and Safety. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 67–111. doi:10.1007/978-1-4613-2241-2_4. ISBN 978-1-4613-2241-2.
  46. ↑ Becker H, Düsterberg B, Klosterhalfen H (1980). "[Bioavailability of cyproterone acetate after oral and intramuscular application in men (author's transl)]" [Bioavailability of Cyproterone Acetate after Oral and Intramuscular Application in Men]. Urologia Internationalis. 35 (6): 381–385. doi:10.1159/000280353. PMID 6452729.
  47. ↑ Moltz L, Haase F, Schwartz U, Hammerstein J (May 1983). "[Treatment of virilized women with intramuscular administration of cyproterone acetate]" [Efficacy of Intra muscularly Applied Cyproterone Acetate in Hyperandrogenism]. Geburtshilfe und Frauenheilkunde. 43 (5): 281–287. doi:10.1055/s-2008-1036893. PMID 6223851.
  48. ↑ Wright JC, Burgess DJ (29 January 2012). Long Acting Injections and Implants. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 114–. ISBN 978-1-4614-0554-2.
  49. ↑ Chu YH, Li Q, Zhao ZF (April 1986). "Pharmacokinetics of megestrol acetate in women receiving IM injection of estradiol-megestrol long-acting injectable contraceptive". The Chinese Journal of Clinical Pharmacology. The results showed that after injection the concentration of plasma MA increased rapidly. The meantime of peak plasma MA level was 3rd day, there was a linear relationship between log of plasma MA concentration and time (day) after administration in all subjects, elimination phase half-life t1/2β = 14.35 ± 9.1 days.
  50. ↑ Runnebaum BC, Rabe T, Kiesel L (6 December 2012). Female Contraception: Update and Trends. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 429–. ISBN 978-3-642-73790-9.
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