Ivan Alimarin
Born11 September [O.S. 29 August] 1903
Moscow, Russian Empire
Died17 December 1989(1989-12-17) (aged 86)
Moscow, Soviet Union
Resting placeMoscow, Rogozhsky cemetery
CitizenshipRussian Empire, Soviet Union
Alma materMoscow State University
AwardsHero of Socialist Labour, Order of Lenin, USSR State Prize
Scientific career
FieldsAnalytical Chemistry
InstitutionsMoscow State University, Moscow State University of Fine Chemical Technologies

Ivan Pavlovich Alimarin (Russian: Иван Павлович Алимарин, September 11, 1903 - December 17, 1989) was a Soviet analytical chemist, academician of the Academy of Sciences of the Soviet Union (1966). Hero of Socialist Labor (1980). Laureate of the State Prize of the USSR. For a long time he was the acknowledged leader of analytical chemistry in Russia. He made a great contribution to the formulation and development of fundamental and applied research in this field of science. His scientific activity covered a wide range of problems, and for many years he was involved in solving major scientific and technical problems in analytical chemistry. He had developed methods of mineral analysis to provide the country's resource base, created macro, micro and ultra-micro analytical methods, developed and applied the method of neutron activation determination of impurities in semiconductors.

Biography

Chronology

  • In 1923, he graduated from the Moscow Commercial College in the commodity department with the specialty of chemical technologist.[1]
  • In 1923-1953 he worked at the Institute of Applied Mineralogy.[2]
  • In 1926-1928 he studied in absentia at the Moscow Mining Academy.[3]
  • In 1929-1936, he participated in development of colorimetric methods for the determination of fluorine, silicon, and germanium.[4]
  • Became Candidate of Chemical Sciences (1935).[3]
  • In 1935-1949, he had studied and introduced methods of chemical concentration of rare elements, in particular co-deposition, electrolysis on a mercury cathode, electro-osmosis, extraction with organic solvents, and distillation of volatile compounds.[5]
  • In 1950 he defended his doctoral thesis "Theoretical foundations of the analytical chemistry of niobium and tantalum and new methods for their determination".[6]
  • In 1949-1989 he was the head of the laboratory of the Institute of Geochemistry and Analytical Chemistry of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR. First it was called "Laboratory of Radiochemistry", then "Laboratory of Pure Substances" (1964), "Laboratory of Radiochemical Methods and Microanalysis", "Laboratory of Radioanalytical and Electrochemical Methods" (1983). In 1972, the Alimarin scientific group was awarded the USSR State Prize for achievements in the field of analysis of high-purity materials.[7]
  • In 1953 he became a corresponding member of the USSR Academy of Sciences and in the same year he became the head of the Department of Analytical Chemistry of Moscow State University. He remained in this position until 1989.[1]
  • In 1963-1988, he was the editor-in-chief of the Journal of Analytical Chemistry.[2] Since 1966, he has been an academician of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR.[8]
  • Became Hero of Socialist Labor (1980).[9]
  • Ivan Pavlovich Alimarin died on December 17, 1989. He was buried in the Rogozhsky cemetery[10].

Early years

He was born in the family of a civil servant, his father was an accountant.[4] After graduating from the Moscow City Elementary School in 1915, he entered the Moscow Commercial School, which after the revolution was transformed into the 2nd Moscow Industrial and Economic College named after G.V. Plekhanov.[1] He studied chemistry with K.I. Viscont, physics with A.V. Tsinger and P.I. Martynov. Under their influence he became interested in natural sciences, especially in analytical chemistry, which he learned from the book of N.A. Menshutkin. Alimarin's interest in chemistry was noticed by the professor of petrography K.I. Viscont, who had a great influence on the formation of his scientific interests.[1]

Further life

In the 1920s, Alimarin was a laboratory assistant and chemistry teacher at the Working Faculty of the Plekhanov Institute of National Economy. Here, under the guidance of professors K.I. Visconta, V.A. Naumov, and A.N. Shilov, Ivan Pavlovich supervised practical courses in inorganic and analytical chemistry. In 1923, after graduating from the college, Alimarin was invited to the Institute of Applied Mineralogy (later renamed the All-Union Institute of Mineral Raw Materials, VIMS). Here began the scientific work of the young researcher, which determined the direction of his activity for many years. In a well-equipped laboratory of petrochemical analysis he began to conduct comprehensive studies of minerals, ores and rocks.[2] In 1935, without defending his thesis, Alimarin received the degree of Candidate of Chemical Sciences and the title of Senior Researcher.[2] At the same time, he worked at the Lomonosov Moscow Institute of Fine Chemical Technology: from 1929 to 1935 — assistant, and from 1935 to 1941 — associate professor and head of the Laboratory of Analysis of Minerals and Ores of Rare Elements of the Department of Mineralogy.[1]

At the beginning of the Second World War he was evacuated with VIMS to the Chelyabinsk region, where he continued to work in the field of analytical chemistry.[1] Upon his return from evacuation (1943), Ivan Pavlovich was appointed head of the Analytical Chemistry Department at the Lomonosov Moscow Institute of Fine Chemical Technology.[11] At the same time, he continued to work at VIMS, where he organized the first laboratory for inorganic microanalysis of minerals and ores in the USSR and created a school of highly qualified analytical chemists.[1]

In 1953, I.P. Alimarin was elected a corresponding member and in 1966 - a full member of the USSR Academy of Sciences.[8]

From 1953 Alimarin worked as the head of the Department of Analytical Chemistry of the Chemical Faculty of Lomonosov Moscow State University, succeeding Professor E.S. Przhevalsky.[5] Here Ivan Pavlovich had created a school of analytical chemists who developed such fields of analytical chemistry as chemistry of rare and trace elements, development of methods for analysis of high purity materials, new chemical and physical methods of analysis, microanalysis.[12]

Main directions of scientific research

Development of the theoretical basis

I.P. Alimarin was mainly interested in theoretical problems of analytical chemistry: study of composition and structure of complexes of metals with organic reagents and especially complexes with mixed ligands, development of theoretical bases for extraction of chelates and other compounds, theoretical bases of distribution chromatography, etc. While solving theoretical problems of analytical chemistry, I.P. Alimarin always thought about the practical results of these studies for his country. Many analytical methods developed under the guidance of Ivan Pavlovich are used in scientific and industrial laboratories.[12]

Methods of analysis of rare and trace elements in raw minerals

At the beginning of his scientific career, Alimarin carried out a series of studies on methods for the determination of boron and fluorine in various objects, since at that time there were no sufficiently good and fast methods for the determination of these elements in minerals and ores. In one of his first studies (1929), Alimarin proposed a colorimetric method for the determination of fluorine using its ability to destroy the zirconium-oxy-anthraquinone complex to form a more stable zirconium fluoride complex.[2] He then used this reaction to develop a quantitative method for determining traces of fluorine in minerals and rocks. He also developed fast and accurate methods for the titrimetric determination of boron in various minerals.[4] Methods of concentration and determination of niobium, tantalum, titanium,[13] zirconium, scandium,[14] gallium, indium,[15] etc. were developed and improved. Many of the methods developed were entirely new.

Development of micro and ultra-micro methods of analysis

In 1939, the First All-Union Conference on Analytical Chemistry was held in Moscow, and one of the sessions was devoted to the problems of microanalysis. The need for further development and practical application of microchemistry, especially for the analysis of minerals and alloys, was raised. And so, since 1940, I.P. Alimarin has been widely developing microchemical methods of analysis. In the pre-war years, Alimarin had developed methods for the microdetermination of nitrous oxide and iron oxide in minerals and rocks, constitutional water, and silicic acid in silicates. During the war, while working in the Chelyabinsk region, Alimarin described in the journal "VIMS Bulletins" the methods he had developed: determination of tin in ores under field and laboratory conditions; field diagnostics of tungsten and molybdenum in minerals and ores; micro and semi-micro methods for the determination of cobalt, vanadium, mercury, etc. During this period he created an in vivo microchemical laboratory for the study of minerals and ores of various types.[5] During these difficult years, I.P. Alimarin devoted all his strength and abilities to the domestic industry, especially metallurgy. This work was a significant contribution to the defense capability of the USSR. After returning from the evacuation, I.P. Alimarin continued the development of micro and semi-micro analytical methods. For this purpose, organic reagents, complex compounds, physicochemical and physical research methods were used: photocolorimetry, polarography, amperometry, etc. Subsequently, all the materials were summarized in the monograph by I.P. Alimarin and B.I. Frida,[16] translated into several foreign languages. Special laboratories of micro- and ultra-microanalysis were created at GEOHI and at the Department of Analytical Chemistry of Moscow State University. In the following years, original methods of colometric microtitrations were proposed.[12] The study of micro-modifications of ion-selective electrodes for determination in small volumes of solutions was a new direction. Analytical electron microscopy was also developed in cooperation with the Institute of Technical Physics of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences (N.P. Ilyin, I. Pozhgai). A method of quantitative X-ray spectral microanalysis of thin layers (up to 100 nm) in a transmission electron microscope was developed, which allowed to determine the chemical composition of microobjects without their destruction with an absolute detection limit up to 10-18 g.[17][18]

Pure substances analysis

The major part of I.P. Alimarin's scientific activity was connected with the development of methods of concentration, separation and determination of small and ultra-small concentrations of elements, i.e. "trace" analytical chemistry. The most striking and practically important embodiment of these studies was their application to the analysis of pure substances used in the nuclear, semiconductor, radio-electronic, fiber optics and other branches of technology. Thanks to the efforts of I.P. Alimarin's teams at GEOHI and MSU, a whole complex of methods for the analysis of high-purity substances was created, which allowed them to determine a large number of impurities with detection limits of 10-5-10-9%.[5] These methods include activation analysis (Yu.V. Yakovlev),[19] inversion voltammetry (E.N. Vinogradova, SI. Sinyakova, O.L. Kabanova),[20] luminescence (A.P. Golovina),[21] laser spectroscopy (Yu.Ya. Kuzyakov),[22] catalytic reactions(I.F. Dolmanova),[23] as well as combined methods combining preliminary concentration by extraction (Y.A. Zolotov),[24] extraction chromatography (T.A. Bolshova),[25] co-deposition (N.A. Rudnev)[12] with atomic emission, atomic absorption or spectrophotometric determination. The widespread use of these methods not only allowed to establish control and certification of products, but also contributed to the improvement of the technology of obtaining high-purity substances. I.P. Alimarin was awarded the USSR State Prize in 1972 for the development of the theory and new physicochemical methods for the analysis of high-purity metals, semiconductor materials and chemical reagents.[26]

Nuclear chemistry and the development of radioanalytical methods

The beginning of work in this direction dates back to the 50's, when the peaceful use of atomic energy, the study of the interaction of high-energy particles with the nuclei of various elements required analysts to develop theoretical and practical issues of analysis of the products of nuclear reactions. Since 1950 I.P. Alimarin with his students and collaborators began to work intensively in this new field. These studies served as a starting point for the formulation and development of radioanalytical methods for the determination of trace elements, such as activation analysis(Yu.V. Yakovlev),[19] isotope dilution(G.N. Bilimovich), and radiometric titration(I.P. Gibalo).[27]

Studies of chromatographic and electrochemical methods of analysis

At the Department of Analytical Chemistry of Moscow State University, under the direction of I.P. Alimarin, many studies were carried out in the field of chromatographic analytical methods, in particular, ion exchange, ionic, gas-liquid and liquid-liquid chromatography.[8] Studies were conducted to identify patterns of ion sorption on surface modified sorbents. Based on these studies, new chromatographic methods were developed for the separation of a number of elements and for the separation of many accompanying ion exchangers modified with organic reagents (heterocyclic azo compounds).[28] Effective sorption-photometric methods were developed for the concentration and determination of palladium, copper and some other elements.[29] On the initiative and under the leadership of Alimarin, in 1960 at Moscow State University and GEOHI the development of a method for determination of ultra-low concentrations of substances, now called inversion voltammetry (E.N. Vinogradova, S.I. Sinyakova), was started.[12] Of interest is the development of a new oscillographic version of the inversion polarography method using statistical methods of experimental design, which allowed to increase the sensitivity of the determination of impurities by 2-3 times in comparison with the generally accepted version (A.I. Kamenev).[30] With the help of I.P. Alimarin, methods of potentiometry and coulometry were developed at the Moscow State University (P.K. Aghasyan).[31] At GEOHI, the method of controlled potential coulometry for precision determination of platinum metals was developed using both a platinum electrode and electrodes made of carbon fabrics.[32] Based on GEOHI's developments, the industry produces thallium oxygen meters of various brands.[33]

Luminescent analysis

Research on the use of photoluminescence in inorganic analysis was initiated and led by I.P. Alimarin in 1963 at the Department of Analytical Chemistry of Moscow State University. Highly sensitive (with detection limits of 10-4-10-7%) and selective methods for the determination of gallium, indium, tantalum, tellurium, uranium, thorium and other elements in semiconductor materials, ores, waters, and chemical reagents were developed.[34][35][36] In the following years, the works on the use of low-temperature luminescence (cryo-luminescence) of aqueous solutions and extracts of halide complexes of d-transition elements, initiated by I.P. Alimarin, were developed.[8] The developed methods are applied in practice in the analysis of semiconductor materials and products of the electronic industry (V.K. Runov).[37]

Works in the field of the history of domestic analytical chemistry

I.P. Alimarin was always interested in the study of the history of the development of Russian science, and together with M.G. Tsyurup he published works in this field. They emphasized the importance of the works of M.V. Lomonosov and D.I. Mendeleev for the development of analytical chemistry and the work of Russian scientists of the first half of the XIX century on analytical chemistry of platinum and platinum metals.[12] In 1967 the work[38] was published, which covers the development of analytical chemistry in the USSR for 50 years. I.P. Alimarin was an active propagandist of the achievements of analytical chemistry and the prospects of its development. A number of his works are devoted to the state, achievements and prospects of development of analytical chemistry.[39] I.P. Alimarin presented his views on general issues of analytical chemistry (the name of the science, its essence, its role in scientific and technological progress) in the article "Modern understanding of the science of analytical chemistry" (1983).[40][41]

Pedagogical activity and training of specialists

Already at the university I.P. Alimarin showed interest in pedagogical work. He studied and taught all the time and, as already mentioned, held various teaching posts. His lectures at the MITHT and later at the Moscow State University were successful and rich in demonstration experiments.[42] Alimarin taught a general course of analytical chemistry for second year students of the Faculty of Chemistry of Moscow State University, as well as a special course on modern methods of analysis for students specializing in analytical chemistry. His lectures were rich in content and reflected the modern level of analytical chemistry and related sciences. Over 80 Ph.D. theses were completed and defended under the guidance of I.P. Alimarin, with his advisory participation 18 doctoral theses were defended.[2]

Together with N.N. Ushakova, a textbook on analytical chemistry was written,[43] and Ivan Pavlovich also introduced demonstration experiments into the lecture course[44][45]

Remembrance

The name of I.P. Alimarin is given to the Department of Analytical Chemistry of M.V. Lomonosov MITHT.[11]

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 "Ivan Pavlovich Alimarin" (PDF). rea.ru.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 "Academician Alimarin Ivan Pavlovich". Archived from the original on 2022-02-25.
  3. 1 2 "Alimarin Ivan Pavlovich". Archived from the original on 2023-03-25.
  4. 1 2 3 "100 years since the birth of Academician Ivan Pavlovich Alimarin". ANCHEM.RU. Archived from the original on 2023-11-20.
  5. 1 2 3 4 "I.P. Alimarin". Archived from the original on 2021-10-17.
  6. ↑ "Thesis catalog". Archived from the original on 2013-03-19. Retrieved 2010-11-11.
  7. ↑ Laboratory of Radioanalytical and Electrochemical Methods Archived 2009-04-13 at the Wayback Machine
  8. 1 2 3 4 Zolotov, Y.A.; Oskolok, K.V., eds. (2017). Department of Analytical Chemistry, Lomonosov Moscow University. Moscow: PRESS-BOOK.RU. p. 278. ISBN 978-5-9909574-6-6.
  9. ↑ "Alimarin Ivan Pavlovich". National Heroes. Archived from the original on 2022-02-21.
  10. ↑ "Moscow tombs. Alimarin I.P." Archived from the original on 2014-08-10. Retrieved 2014-08-03.
  11. 1 2 "Official website of the Department of Analytical Chemistry, M.V. Lomonosov MITHT". Archived from the original on 2014-10-29. Retrieved 2014-08-07.
  12. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Ivan Pavlovich Alimarin. Essays. Memories. Materials. M.: Nauka, 1993. 158 с. ISBN 5-02-001636-5
  13. ↑ Alimarin, I.P.; Gibalo, I.M. (1956). "Extraction of niobium, tantalum and titanium kupferonates". Papers of the USSR Academy of Sciences. 109: 1137–1139.
  14. ↑ Putilina, V.S.; Fadeeva, V.I.; Alimarin, I.P. (1973). "Extraction of tenoyltrifluoroacetonates of zirconium and scandium in the presence of diamidheptyl phosphate from mineral acid solutions". Bulletin of Moscow University. 14 (2): 120–122.
  15. ↑ Golovina, A.P.; Hvatkova, Z.M.; Zorov, N.B.; Alimarin, I.P. (1972). "Asymmetric Rhodamine Dyes as Extraction and Fluorimetric Reagents for Gallium and Indium". Bulletin of Moscow University. 13 (5): 551–555.
  16. ↑ Alimarin, I.P.; Frid, B.I. (1961). Quantitative microchemical analysis of minerals, ores and rocks. Moscow: Goshimizdat. p. 399.
  17. ↑ Alimarin, I.P.; Petrikova, M.N. (1960). Inorganic ultromicroanalysis. Moscow: AS USSR. p. 152.
  18. ↑ Alimarin, I.P.; Petrikova, M.N. (1974). Qualitative and quantitative ultromicrochemical analysis. Moscow: Himiya. p. 286.
  19. 1 2 Alimarin, I.P.; Yakovlev, Y.V. (1969). "Nuclear-physical methods of analysis". Atomic Energy. 26 (2): 127–132.
  20. ↑ Alimarin, I.P.; Vinogradova, E.N.; Kamenev, A.I. (1972). "Inversion-voltammetric determination of trace elements on a hanging mercury drop". Chem. Anal. 17: 459–467.
  21. ↑ Golovina, A.P.; Levshin, L.V. (1978). Chemical luminescence analysis of inorganic substances. Moscow: Himiya.
  22. ↑ Kuzyakov, Yu.Ya.; Zorov, N.B.; Chaplygin, V.I.; Novodvorsky, O.A. (1983). "Trace Analysis by Laser Optogalvanic Spectroscopy". Journal de Physique. 44 (7): 335–343.
  23. ↑ Dolmanova, I.F.; Ershova, E.V.; Shekhovtsova, T.N.; Nad', V.Y. (1979). "Kinetic determination of microquantities of mercury using peroxidase enzyme". Journal of Analytical Chemistry. 34 (12): 1644–1647.
  24. ↑ Alimarin, I.P.; Zolotov, Y.A. (1962). "Extraction in chemical analysis". Industrial Laboratory. 28 (11): 1365–1366.
  25. ↑ Alimarin, I.P.; Bolshova, T.A.; Bakhareva, G.A. (1973). "Separation of indium (III) and antimony (V) by extraction chromatography". Journal of Analytical Chemistry. 28 (8): 1300–1303.
  26. ↑ Ivanov, V.M.; Kolotov, V.P.; Ostroumov, G.V. (2003). "Academician Ivan Pavlovich Alimarin (1903-1989): On the 100th anniversary of his birth". Zavodskaya Laboratoriya. Diagnostika Materialov. 69 (8): 7–13. ISSN 1028-6861.
  27. ↑ Alimarin, I.P. (1955). "Applications of radioactive isotopes in chemical analysis". Applications of isotopes in technology, biology and agriculture: reports of the Soviet delegation. Moscow: AS USSR. pp. 152–180.
  28. ↑ Brykina, G.D.; Stepanova, N.L.; Belyavskaya, T.A. (1982). "Effect of adsorption of 1-(2-thiazolylazo)-2-naphthol and its derivatives during modification of sorbent AV-17 on the complexation ability of these reagents". Journal of Analytical Chemistry. 36 (2): 52–57.
  29. ↑ Alimarin, I.P.; Nikitin, I.S.; Ivanov, V.M.; Bolshova, T.A.; Basova, E.M.; Morozova, N.B. (1986). "High-Performance Liquid-Chromatography of 1-(2-pyridylazo)-2-naphtholates of Palladium, Rhodium, and Platinum". Akademiia Nauk SSSR. 288 (5): 1112–1115.
  30. ↑ Zolotov, Y.A., ed. (2015). Chemical analysis on the road to excellence. Department of Analytical Chemistry. Moscow: LENAND. pp. 223–234.
  31. ↑ Agasjan, P.K.; Drapkin, M.Y.; Shestopalov, G.N.; Kamenev, A.I. (1979). "Heavy metals determination by chronopotentiometric control of natural and industrial sewage waters". VIII IMEKO Congress. Moscow: 1773–1778.
  32. ↑ "Potentiostatic coulometry". GEOHI RAS. Archived from the original on 2021-01-24.
  33. ↑ "O.L. Kabanova". GEOHI RAS. Archived from the original on 2021-02-25.
  34. ↑ SU patent 947759, "Gold Luminiscent Determination Method", issued 1982-04-14
  35. ↑ SU patent 1122613, "Method for Detecting Ruthenium", issued 1984-11-04
  36. ↑ SU patent 1083110, "Europium Determination Method", issued 1984-03-30
  37. ↑ Runov, V.K. (1994). Development of optical sorption-molecular spectroscopic methods of analysis (Doctor of Sciences in Chemical Sciences thesis). Moscow State University.
  38. ↑ Alimarin, I.P.; Tsyurup, M.G. (1967). Soviet science and technology for 50 years. Development of general, inorganic and analytical chemistry in the USSR. Moscow: Nauka. p. 245.
  39. ↑ Alimarin, I.P.; Zolotov, Y.A. (1975). "Prospective Developments in Analytical-Chemistry". Journal of Analytical Chemistry of the USSR. 30 (7): 1059–1064.
  40. ↑ Alimarin, I.P. (1983). "Current understanding of the science of "analytical chemistry"". Journal of Analytical Chemistry. 38 (3): 540–556.
  41. ↑ "Ivan Pavlovich Alimarin (On the 100th anniversary of his birth)". Moscow University. No. 29. 2003.
  42. ↑ Alimarin, I.P.; Fadeeva, V.I.; Dorohova, E.N. (1976). Lecture experiments in analytical chemistry. Moscow: Mir. p. 306.
  43. ↑ Alimarin, I.P.; Ushakova, N.N. (1977). Analytical Chemistry Reference Manual. Moscow: MSU. p. 102.
  44. ↑ Alimarin, I.P.; Fadeeva, V.I.; Dorohova, E.N. (1974). Demonstration experiment in the general course of analytical chemistry. Himiya. p. 288.
  45. ↑ Mavrina, T.V.; Popov, V.A. (2003). Plate, N.A. (ed.). Russian science in persons. Moscow: Academia. p. 3. ISBN 5-87444-208-1.

Literature

  • "Alimarin I. P., To the sixtieth anniversary of his birth". Zavodskaya Lavoratoriya. 29 (9). 1963.
  • Zolotov, Y.A.; Petrikova, M.N., eds. (1974). Advances in analytical chemistry. Moscow: Nauka. p. 358.
  • Sherbina, E. (1978). "For the glory of science. Jubilee of a scientist". Moscow University. No. 38.
  • Ivan Pavlovich Alimarin. Essays. Memories. Materials. Moscow: Nauka. 1993. p. 158. ISBN 5-02-001636-5.
  • Ivanov, V.M.; Kolotov, V.P.; Ostroumov, G.V. (2003). "Academician Ivan Pavlovich Alimarin (1903-1989): On the 100th anniversary of his birth". Zavodskaya Laboratoriya. Diagnostika Materialov. 69 (8): 7–13. ISSN 1028-6861.
  • "Ivan Pavlovich Alimarin (On the 100th anniversary of his birth)". Moscow University. No. 29. 2003.
  • Mavrina, T.V.; Popov, V.A. (2003). Plate, N.A. (ed.). Russian science in persons. Moscow: Academia. p. 3. ISBN 5-87444-208-1.
  • Bogunenko, N.N.; Pelipenko, A.D.; Sosnin, G.A.; Belov, A.S. (2005). Heroes of the atomic project. Sarov: Rosatom. p. 43. ISBN 5-9515-0005-2.
  • Prohorov, A.M., ed. (1969–1978). Alimarin Ivan Pavlovich // Great Soviet Encyclopedia. Moscow: Sovetskaya Enciclopediya.
This article is issued from Wikipedia. The text is licensed under Creative Commons - Attribution - Sharealike. Additional terms may apply for the media files.