Service with No. 48 Squadron

Shortly after Park's arrival at No. 48 Squadron, the unit moved to Frontier Aerodrome just east of Dunkirk.^[15] The squadron was equipped with the new Bristol Fighter, a two-seat biplane fighter and reconnaissance aircraft, and carried out patrols and reconnaissance flights. It also escorted bombers attacking German airfields in Belgium. Park had his first encounter with fighters of the Imperial German Air Service on 24 July 1917, when he was engaged by three Albatros D.III scout aircraft near Middelkerke. He and his observer, Second Lieutenant A. Merchant, operating a Lewis gun, drove off the attackers, sending one out of control.^[16][17] When the Germans started using their heavy bombers to attack London and other targets in England during the summer, No. 48 Squadron was tasked with interception duties. Park never saw any bombers on these flights.^[18]

Park achieved his second aerial victory on 12 August when, flying with Second Lieutenant Arthur Noss as his observer, he was attacked by a pair of Albatrosses while returning to base after a patrol. Sustained gun fire from Noss drove an Albatros out of control.^[18] On 16 August, again paired with Noss, the duo combined to send a DFW C.V reconnaissance aircraft out of control.^[17] The following day Park and Noss engaged in a prolonged dogfight that began at 15,000 feet (4,600 m) over Slijpe and ended near Ghistelles at a height of 3,000 feet (910 m). The pair destroyed one Albatros, seeing it crash into the sea, and sent three others out of control. In recognition of their successes, the commander of 4th Brigade, Brigadier-General John Becke, recommended Park and Noss for the Military Cross (MC).^[17][19] This was duly awarded, the published citation for Park's MC reading:

For conspicuous gallantry and devotion to duty. During an engagement with several large hostile formations, the two machines with which he was patrolling were put out of action. In spite, however, of being left alone, he continued to attack, and engaged the enemy in so determined a manner that he and his observer between them destroyed one and drove three others down completely out of control. He has performed several other fine feats, and has at all times set a most inspiring example by his dash and tenacity.

— The London Gazette, No. 30466, 9 January 1918.^[20]

On 21 August Park, flying with Second Lieutenant W. O'Toole while Noss was rested,^[19] drove two Albatros scouts out of control. Back with Noss on 25 August, the pair destroyed an Albatros south of Slijpe. On 2 September, with Alan Light, Park had two separate engagements with Albatrosses near Diksmuide; both aircraft that he and Light fired at were seen to be going down in an uncontrolled manner.^[17][21] On 5 September Park, flying with Air Mechanic H. Lindfield, killed a pilot of Jasta Boelcke, Franz Pernet, the stepson of General Erich Ludendorff, off Ostend. Flying near Slijpe on 9 September, he and Lindfield drove an Albatros out of control, and two days later Park was promoted to temporary captain.^[17][22] He destroyed an Albatros on 14 September, with Second Lieutenant H. Owen as his observer, and sent another Albatros out of control.^[17] Park was the squadron's most successful pilot over the August–September period and Becke recommended him for the Distinguished Service Order. The senior officer of the RFC in France, Major-General Hugh Trenchard, downgraded this to a Bar to his MC on the basis that this was sufficient reward.^[22][23] The published citation read:

For conspicuous gallantry and devotion to duty in accounting for nine enemy aircraft, three of which were completely destroyed and six driven down out of control.

— The London Gazette, No. 30583, 18 March 1918.^[24]

Towards the end of September, No. 48 Squadron moved to the Arras sector, having incurred several casualties in the previous weeks. There, Park, now a flight leader, concentrated on preparing his command, which contained many inexperienced replacement pilots, for aerial combat. It was now involved in less dangerous work, mostly reconnaissance patrols, and casualties were light.^[22][25] In November, he was awarded a French honour, the Croix de guerre, for services in support of the 1st French Army's operations during its time in the Flanders sector of Belgium.^[26] On 3 January 1918, Park and his observer, Lieutenant J. Robertson, were flying near Ramicourt on a photo reconnaissance when they were engaged by several German Albatros fighters. Park was able to send one Albatros out of control although his observer's gun jammed. Park eventually evaded the pursuing fighters, although his engine was damaged by machine-gun fire and he force landed behind British lines. He was then sent to England for a rest; this proved to be brief for later in January he was posted to Hooton Park to instruct Canadian trainee pilots.^[27][23]

Squadron command

Park in his Royal Flying Corps uniform

Following the commencement of the German spring offensive in late March 1918, Park returned to France as a major to take command of No. 48 Squadron.^[28] By this time he was the only surviving pilot from its 1917 ranks. The first few days of his tenure were marked by relocations, as the squadron repeatedly retreated to new sites to stay ahead of the advancing Germans. It eventually settled in at Bertangles, where it remained for some time. Park was well respected by his men, though he tended to avoid close relationships with those under his command.^[29]

The squadron carried out low-level attacks on German troops and positions, as well as its regular reconnaissance work. The Bristol Fighter was unsuited to the former role, having limited maneuverability at low altitude.^[29] At one point in the later stages of the German advance, the squadron was reduced to three operational aircraft, the rest having been damaged or destroyed by ground fire.^[30] On 18 May, he and his observer engaged a Pfalz D.III, driving it out of control near Bray. The following month, on 25 June, flying with Second Lieutenant H. Knowles, he destroyed a Rumpler reconnaissance aircraft, and sent a DFW C.V out of control.^[17]

In August Park was wounded during a bombing raid on his squadron's airfield at Bertangles, but managed to help other injured men escape from burning hangars.^[31] By November, the strain of command had all but exhausted Park. On 9 November, in a fatigued state, he crashed a Bristol during a test flight. Two days later, the war ended.^[32] There is some confusion regarding the number of aerial victories Park achieved during the course of the war; official documentation of No. 48 Squadron states that he and his observers were credited with destroying 9 and sending 11 out of control, a total of 20 German aircraft. Records in the Air Ministry credit him with 14 aerial victories. Park's biographer Vincent Orange considered that Park definitely destroyed 11 aircraft and damaged, if not destroyed, 13 others.^[33]

Staff officer

In March 1923, Park's health was sufficiently restored that he was returned to flight status and two months later he was posted to Egypt on technical duties. Based at Aboukir, he was accompanied by his wife and the couple's young son. Later in the year, he transferred to Cairo as a technical staff officer at the headquarters of RAF Middle East Command. In October 1924 he was switched to air staff duties. He became well respected by his commander, Oliver Swann, who advocated for him in 1925 when concerns were raised regarding Park's health. In June 1926, Park and his family, which now included a second son, returned to England. A medical examination at this time graded him fit for duty.^[41]

At the behest of an acquaintance, Air Commodore Felton Holt, Park was posted to the Air Defence of Great Britain (ADGB) in August. He was to serve on the staff of the commander of the ADGB, Air Marshal Sir John Salmond, with responsibility for "Operations, Intelligence Mobilization and Combined Training". The ADGB, based at Uxbridge, was a RAF command tasked with the air defence of the United Kingdom, and Park was given considerable latitude in developing his role. After 15 months with the ADGB, Park was given a squadron command; he proceeded to Duxford to lead No. 111 Squadron, a fighter unit. It operated the Armstrong Whitworth Siskin and Park ensured that the squadron worked extensively, routinely recording high flying hours during his tenure in command.^[42][43] He was involved in an incident on 7 February 1928, when he crashed a Siskin while landing at night. In the ensuing investigation, he conceded his night vision was flawed and thereafter did not fly at night.^[44]

Park was promoted to wing commander on 1 January 1929 and posted back to Uxbridge on staff duties two months later. For two years running he helped in the organisation of the air pageants at Hendon, which drew over 100,000 spectators, and he was also involved in the development of systems for controlling the operations of fighter aircraft defending the United Kingdom from aerial attacks. His senior officer at this time was Air Vice Marshal Hugh Dowding.^[45][46] In January 1931, Park was given command of the RAF station at Northolt, his tenure lasting 18 months.^[47] He then became chief instructor at the Oxford University Air Squadron (OUAS). Park was responsible for 75 students, among them Archibald Hope, who later commanded No. 601 Squadron. Hope regarded Park as a good commander of the OUAS, as did a junior instructor, the future flying ace Tom Gleave. Many of the students at OUAS, encouraged by Park, would go on to join the RAF. He was subsequently awarded an honorary Master of Arts degree by Oxford University in recognition of his services.^[48]

South America

In November 1934, Park was dispatched to Buenos Aires to serve as the Air Attaché for South America. A key part of his role was to facilitate local interest in British aircraft. He had been given notice of his appointment some months before, affording him time to learn Spanish. He was accompanied by his wife but their two children remained in England, attending boarding schools.^[49] Park's wife Dol had longstanding connections to Argentina, as members of her family had held diplomatic postings in the country.^[50] Soon after his arrival he was promoted to group captain.^[48] He travelled throughout the continent, visiting aircraft factories and air bases, and promoting British aircraft, military and civilian. The work was challenging as American aircraft manufacturers dominated the scene and he was not helped by the Air Ministry's commitment to expanding the RAF in preference to making aircraft sales to other countries.^[46][51] The skills he learnt in the role, ranging from mixing with military personnel of all ranks to rapid inspections of air bases, proved beneficial in the future.^[52]

Fighter Command

Park was appointed Air Aide-de-Camp to King George VI in early 1937. By this time, he had returned to the United Kingdom and was attending the Imperial Defence College, which was close to Buckingham Palace. The course at the Imperial Defence College was designed to enhance the knowledge of its students, mostly senior officers from the British armed forces, in staff, diplomacy and political matters. Park became known for being a questioning student, and demanding of guest lecturers. At the end of the year, he took command of the RAF station at Tangmere, which was home to two fighter squadrons and a bomber unit. In April 1938, he took ill with streptococcal pharyngitis; this prevented him from taking up his next posting in Palestine, which instead went to Arthur Harris, future leader of Bomber Command. Park, after a period of rest, took the position that had been intended for Harris: Senior Air Staff Officer (SASO) to Hugh Dowding, the commander of Fighter Command, which had been formed in July 1936, after the ADGB was split up.^{[53][54][Note 1]}

Park took up his new appointment in May, and this coincided with a promotion to air commodore. He was now based at Bentley Priory, second-in-command to Dowding.^[53] The pair worked towards the development of an operational defence system for the United Kingdom, the first of its type in the world.^[55] This involved improving the operational efficiency of Fighter Command and the integration of radio direction finding (RDF) techniques into the tactical handling of fighters to counter incoming bombers. A key improvement made by Park in the control of RAF fighters over the southeast of England was better vetting of data that made it to the plotting tables on which movement of both friendly and enemy aircraft were shown. Dowding had been resistant to Park's suggestion to filter out some data but became convinced of its merits when Park conducted unauthorised trials and showed the results to Dowding. The plotting tables, now less cluttered, made for more effective decision making.^[56][57]

With Dowding's blessing, Park also worked on an air tactics manual for Fighter Command.^[58] As part of this he recommended replacing the rifle-calibre machine guns on the Hawker Hurricane and Supermarine Spitfire fighters with heavy machine guns, but was overruled.^[59][60] He was also against the use of the conventional "Vic" formation used by the RAF, in which three fighter aircraft flew in a V-formation, on the basis that these were not suited for monoplanes and wanted to explore alternatives. Despite his efforts the Air Ministry maintained its existing approach to fighter tactics.^[58]

Dunkirk

At the time Park took command of No. 11 Group, it was perceived that Leigh-Mallory's No. 12 Group would bear the brunt of the German bombing campaign since this area of the British Isles was the closest to Germany. The subsequent invasion of the Low Countries on 10 May changed the threat level for the southeast of England.^[63] By 24 May the majority of the BEF, along with French and Belgian troops, had been pushed back and became encircled at Dunkirk. During the subsequent Dunkirk evacuation, codenamed Operation Dynamo, No. 11 Group provided air cover under Park's direction. The RAF fighters were disadvantaged, having to operate over 50 miles (80 km) from their bases in the southeast of England and without the benefit of radar coverage. At best, they had about 40 minutes flying time over Dunkirk.^[68]

Park operated patrol lines over Dunkirk on 27 May, the first day of the evacuation, but the RAF fighters were heavily outnumbered. They were unable to prevent the bombing of Dunkirk itself, but were able to provide some limited protection of the moles and ships. The following day, under orders from the CAS, Air Chief Marshal Cyril Newall, fighters attempted to provide continuous coverage throughout the day but were unable to do so due to their relatively limited numbers. Park advocated for the usage of at least two squadrons at a time in stronger patrols rather than the continuous coverage. This was based on his own observations from flying his personal Hurricane over Dunkirk. His approach was put into effect the next day, sometimes using as many as four squadrons, with greater intervals between patrols.^[69][70] Although there was some pressure from Newall and Churchill for a stronger RAF presence over the beachhead, Dowding sheltered Park from this influence and left him to his work.^[71] In the later stages of Operation Dynamo, which ended on 4 June, weather and the pressure from the advancing Germans forced the evacuation efforts to be concentrated on the times around dawn and dusk, and Park's fighters were able to operate more effectively.^[69][70]

Throughout this period, Park not only flew his Hurricane to Dunkirk to see the situation for himself, but also visited RAF airfields and met personnel, both pilots and groundcrew. He was very recognisable, wearing white overalls when flying. This helped foster his reputation within No. 11 Group.^[72][73] He also maintained a desire to switch to the offensive; just two weeks after Dunkirk, he sought to have some Hurricane squadrons refitted as fighter-bombers and used, along with Bristol Blenheims, to make nighttime attack on the German airfields in France. Dowding did not approve.^[74]

Battle of Britain

At the commencement of the Battle of Britain, Fighter Command had 58 squadrons spread across four fighter groups. As well as Park's No. 11 Group and Leigh-Mallory's No. 12 Group, these included No. 10 Group, which covered the southwest of England, and No. 13 Group, covering the north of England and Scotland. Being responsible for the south-eastern England area, including London, No. 11 Group faced the bulk of the Luftwaffe's air strength, at least 1,000 bombers and 400 fighters. To counter this, Park had at his disposal 350 fighters across 22 fighter squadrons and just over 550 pilots. He was also able to draw upon the neighbouring groups for reinforcements as required.^[75][76] Park directed that the fighter squadrons under his control be scrambled against incoming German bombers with the aim of attacking them before they reached their targets, and that engaging fighter escorts should be avoided.^[77][78]

Using the plotting tables at his headquarters at Uxbridge, Park had to assess which raids were a real threat and which were intended to draw away RAF fighters. Timing was important; incoming raids needed to be intercepted before reaching their targets. An understanding of what aircraft were available was also critical. He needed to ensure that there were as many as possible in the air to counter the German bombers and to avoid having too many on the ground being refuelled and rearmed.^[77] Even with the benefit of radar, Park was still disadvantaged. He usually had only around 20 minutes from when radar detected the buildup of the incoming bombers over the Pas de Calais or Cotentin regions to scramble his squadrons and have them at a suitable height for interception.^[79] To help remedy this disadvantage, he often directed his squadrons to take off in a direction away from the oncoming bombers so as to maximise the time they had to gain the necessary altitude to attack.^[80]

Operations room at the headquarters of No. 11 Group in Uxbridge

At the start of the Battle of Britain, generally deemed by British historians to be 10 July (German sources usually cite a date in August), the Luftwaffe's initial focus was to gain air superiority over the English Channel, before moving to strike targets inland of the coastline. Its targets were shipping convoys moving through the Channel as well as the ports in the south of England. It was not until 1 August, when Adolf Hitler ordered the invasion of Britain, that the Luftwaffe escalated its aerial operations, with a view to the invasion commencing in late September.^[81][82] At this time the coastal radar stations were targeted, as well as airfields and aircraft manufacturing facilities. This placed further pressure on Park and how he dispersed his fighter squadrons.^[83] An added issue was the drain on pilots through combat losses and their replacements being inadequately trained. This was somewhat compensated for by transferring flying personnel from squadrons in the other Fighter Command Groups and volunteers from the Fleet Air Arm.^[84] He kept in regular contact with his squadrons, often flying his Hurricane to the airfields and addressing those under his command. These visits were important for morale, particularly for those airfields that had been bombed by the Luftwaffe.^[85][86] According to his flying logbook, he made at least one operational sortie, on 10 July, to see a shipping convoy during a visit to Lympne airfield.^[87]

On 16 August, following a visit to Park's headquarters at Uxbridge, Winston Churchill made a speech in which he recited one of his most famous lines, referring to RAF fighter pilots: "Never in the field of human conflict has so much been owed by so many to so few".^[88] Churchill, who thought well of Park, made another visit to Uxbridge the following month, on 15 September. His visit coincided with the Luftwaffe's greatest daytime raid on England. Churchill noted the many incoming German aircraft but was reassured with Park's calm reply that RAF forces would meet them. He put up all his aircraft, leaving no reserve, and they were joined by 60 fighters from No. 12 Group. It was the first time that the RAF and the Luftwaffe met in nearly equal numbers. The German attack was a significant failure and an even larger raid mounted later in the afternoon was also unsuccessful. The date of 15 September subsequently became known as Battle of Britain Day.^[89][90] On the grounds that the Luftwaffe had not yet achieved dominance in the air, Hitler consequently postponed the scheduled invasion of England but this would not become clear to the British for several more weeks.^[91]

Earlier in September, the Luftwaffe had switched from attacking the RAF airfields to London itself. The Germans believed that Fighter Command was largely exhausted but the change in tactics was welcomed as both Park and Dowding recognised that it would be a relief for their pilots.^[92] At one stage the previous month, pilots and fighters were being lost at a greater rate than they could be replaced and Park had to close Biggin Hill, which had been rendered nonoperational due to bomb damage.^[93] The Luftwaffe's shift to targeting London gave Park valuable breathing space to rebuild his damaged airfields. He also changed his own tactics, using his squadrons to intercept the German bombers and fighters making their way back to France after bombing London.^[94] Park later remarked to Alan Mitchell, a New Zealand journalist: "The Hun lost the Battle of Britain when he switched from bombing my fighter-stations to bombing London...".^[95] Despite the change in tactics, No. 11 Group was still under pressure. It operated standing patrols to be ready to intercept incoming raids, which were now coming in at higher altitudes. It was therefore more difficult to make out whether such raids were bombers or just a large fighter sweep; Park sought to avoid engagement with the latter. He endeavoured to keep his pilots fresh and rested, arranging for improved facilities and billets away from areas being bombed.^[96]

Relief

By late October, it was clear that the Luftwaffe's operations were lacking the intensity of previous months and, by the end of the month, the Battle of Britain was deemed to be over.^[107] Park's mind turned to the commencement of offensive operations and he made proposals to attack the German airfields in France, identifying that these were vulnerable to surprise attacks prior to sunset. Dowding overruled him, although Douglas was receptive to the proposal.^[108] On 7 December, Park was replaced as commander of No. 11 Group, his successor being Leigh-Mallory. The decision had been made late the previous month.^[109] Officially, this was because Park needed a rest from the stress of the past several months. Park believed his relief was due to the dispute with Leigh-Mallory.^[110]

Historian John Ray, in his account of Dowding's handling of the Battle of Britain, argues that Park was seen at the Air Ministry as being closely aligned with Dowding, implementing the latter's defensive scheme. Dowding, already overdue for his retirement, had been released from his post on 17 November and, once he went, Park had to follow to enable a fresh start at Fighter Command.^[109][111] Douglas took over Fighter Command and Leigh-Mallory No. 11 Group.^[112] According to Park, on his final day at No. 11 Group, he had to formally brief Leigh-Mallory's SASO rather Leigh-Mallory himself who, contrary to custom, was not present for the changeover in command.^[111]

On learning of Park's impending departure, Air Vice Marshal Richard Saul, who led No. 13 Group, wrote to Park and noted "the magnificent achievements of your group in the past six months; they have borne the brunt of the war, and undoubtedly saved England".^[113] Arthur Tedder, a future CAS, later said of Park's command of No. 11 Group: "If ever any one man won the Battle of Britain, he did. I don't believe it is realised how much that one man, with his leadership, his calm judgement and his skill, did to save not only this country, but the world".^[114] Park himself felt that Saul should have taken over No. 11 Group instead of Leigh-Mallory, on the basis that the former was much more familiar with the RAF stations in the area. The news of Park's dismissal was met with dismay among his command. Wing Commander Victor Beamish, in charge of North Weald station, wrote to Park, advising that the regret at his departure crossed all ranks. Group Captain Cecil Bouchier, another senior officer within No. 11 Group, considered Park's leadership "...by his own infinite efforts...would not only ensure ultimate victory but inspire it".^[110] Subsequent appraisals of Park by German military intelligence were that he was a "man of action",^[115] and was known as the "Defender of London".^{[116][Note 3]}

Shortly after his relief, on 17 December, it was publicly announced that Park had been appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath. According to the citation in The London Gazette, the honour was "in recognition of distinguished services rendered in recent operations".^[117] Despite this, Park was angry at his treatment by the Air Ministry and his opinion as to the reason for his relief was reinforced by comments from colleagues that unofficial reports had been made about Park's poor relationship with Leigh-Mallory. Late the following year he wrote to the new CAS, Air Chief Marshal Charles Portal, who had made the decision to replace Park with Leigh-Mallory, arguing his case. Portal promptly replied with assurances that his decision had nothing to do with Leigh-Mallory and was simply a matter of Park's health.^[118] Churchill was angered at the treatment of Park, and Dowding, by the Air Ministry's publication in March 1941 of a pamphlet on the Battle of Britain, in which neither officer was mentioned. A subsequent republication of the pamphlet, in an illustrated form, remedied this omission.^[119]

Training Command

Declining an assignment to the Air Ministry, Park was posted to Training Command, taking charge of No. 23 Group.^[113] His command, centered on RAF South Cerney, encompassed seven service flying training schools, the Central Flying School at Upavon, and the School of Air Navigation at St Athan. It was later expanded with the addition of the Aeroplane and Armament Experimental Establishment and the Blind Approach Development Unit, both at RAF Boscombe Down. When he arrived at his command on 27 December, he immediately noted deficiencies in its procedures as it had not moved to a wartime footing. Some within No. 23 Group appeared unaware of the urgent need for trained pilots during the Battle of Britain.^[120]

Park moved immediately to remedy the situation. As he had at No. 11 Group, Park regularly flew himself to the stations under his command. Within a month of his arrival, he had visited each unit at least once, seeing for himself their state of readiness. He improved operational efficiencies, introduced new equipment, and modernised airfields.^[121] At times he found within Training Command a cultural resistance to change that he had to overcome.^[122]

By the end of 1941, overseas training establishments were coming on line and Park was looking to a potential return to frontline duties. In December, he was given a posting to Iraq as Air Officer Commanding (AOC). In a matter of days this changed, and he instead proceeded to Egypt to become AOC there.^[123] In his new role, he was responsible for the aerial defence of the Nile Delta region, duties that were similar to those he performed as commander of No. 11 Group, although he now had night fighters under his control.^[124] The Luftwaffe, flying from bases in the Greek islands, became more aggressive in its operations against targets in Egypt, threatening the buildup of Allied forces in the region. Park was able to improve the efficiency and coordination of Egypt's defences and deal better with incoming bombing raids.^[125]

Malta

Park in front of his Hurricane on Malta

On 8 July 1942, Park relinquished command in Egypt and six days later went to Malta to replace Hugh Lloyd, the RAF commander on the island, which was under siege by the Axis powers.^[126] It was felt that Park's experience of fighter defence operations was needed. Arriving by flying boat, he landed in the middle of a raid, although Lloyd had specifically requested he circle the harbour until it had passed. Lloyd met Park and admonished him for taking unnecessary risks in landing.^[127]

Park abandoned the defensive approach taken by Lloyd, in which the island's fighters took off, circled behind the approaching bombers of the Axis forces and engaged them over Malta. Park, having plenty of Spitfires on hand, sought to intercept and break up the German and Italian bomber formations before they reached Malta. One squadron would endeavour to engage the fighters providing high cover for the bombers, another would deal with the closer escorting fighters and the third would seek out the bombers directly.

Using these tactics, similar what had been employed by his No. 11 Group during the Battle of Britain, Park believed that it would be more likely that the enemy would be shot down or abort their objectives. His forces began implementing what Park called his Forward Interception Plan on 25 July. It was immediately successful and, within a week, daylight raids had ceased. The Axis response was to send in fighter sweeps at even higher altitudes to gain the tactical advantage. Park retaliated by ordering his fighters to climb no higher than 6,100 feet (1,900 m). This conceded a considerable height advantage to the opposing fighters, but forced them to engage the Spitfires at altitudes more suitable for the latter.^[128][129]

By September the Axis's aerial operations against Malta were on the decline and the British regained air superiority over the island.^[130] RAF bomber and torpedo squadrons soon returned to Malta in anticipation of offensive operations against German forces in North Africa. Park dispatched Hurricane fighter bombers, fitted with extra fuel tanks, to attack Axis supply lines as far away as Egypt. Vickers Wellington medium bombers and Bristol Beaufort torpedo bombers attacked ports, shipping and airfields, disrupting the Axis supply routes.^[129][131] In October, the Axis resumed its bomber offensive against the island; resistance was more effective using Park's tactics although some bombers still managed to attack targets on Malta.^[132]

With supplies more regularly getting through to Malta, offensive operations in support of the Allied campaign in North Africa increased under Park's direction. More bombers arrived and these attacked targets in Algeria ahead of Operation Torch and, later, in Tunisia. There were also sorties against targets in Sicily and Sardinia.^[133] On 27 November, Park's appointment as a Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire was announced. This was "in recognition of distinguished services in the campaign in the Middle East".^[134] At times his relations with senior officials on Malta were testy; Vice Admiral Power described Park as "unsatisfactory to deal with".^[135] Park's work was praised by the American Lieutenant General Dwight Eisenhower and British Lieutenant General Bernard Montgomery, appreciative of the RAF's operations from Malta in support of their ground forces in North Africa.^[133]

Operations of RAF forces in Malta against Sicily became increasingly important into 1943; the Italian island was a major departure point for shipping taking supplies to the Axis forces in Tunisia.^[133] By the end of May, Park had 600 modern aircraft under his control, three times what he had at the start of the year. RAF facilities on Malta had also undergone significant expansion in anticipation of the island serving as a major airbase in support of an Allied offensive against Italy.^[136] This began with the invasion of Sicily on 10 July, a campaign lasting less than six weeks. Before its commencement, Park arranged the construction of a control room at Malta. From here, he directed operations of the aircraft under his command, which amounted to 40 squadrons based at Malta, Gozo and Pantelleria.^[137][138]

In September, Park went to London on leave and, while there, agitated for a new posting. Portal, still the CAS, thought that Park could become head of the Northwest African Tactical Air Force, replacing another New Zealander, Arthur Coningham. Air Chief Marshal Arthur Tedder, commander of Mediterranean Air Command, preferred another candidate. Park was then slated to go to India as the air officer in charge of administration, but when the proposed appointment went to Churchill for approval, he preferred Park remain where he was for the time being.^[139]

Middle East

In January 1944, Park was promoted to air marshal and appointed air officer commander-in-chief of RAF Middle East Command, taking the role over from Sholto Douglas on Tedder's recommendation. Park arrived in Cairo on 6 January; his new post was subordinate to the RAF command structure for the Mediterranean and Middle East, led by Air Marshal John Slessor.^[140] Although Park's appointment was quickly criticised by Slessor, on the grounds that the RAF would lose influence in the region to the British Army,^{[Note 4]} little weight was placed on his views as he was known to be very opinionated on matters about which that he often knew little.^[140] Portal and Tedder maintained their confidence in Park, as did Churchill. Park's duties in Cairo extended to the supervision of air operations in the eastern portion of the Mediterranean, as well as the Indian Ocean. He was also responsible for the training of RAF personnel in Egypt, Cyprus, Palestine and South Africa.^[141]

Partway through the year, Park was considered by the Australian government for command of the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF), because of the rivalry between its de jure head, the Chief of the Air Staff, Air Vice Marshal George Jones, and Jones's nominal subordinate, Air Vice Marshal William Bostock, in charge of RAAF operations in the Pacific. The Australian Prime Minister, John Curtin, discussed the matter with Churchill and Portal in August, but to no avail. In any case, General Douglas MacArthur, the American commander of the South West Pacific Area, said it was too late in the war to make such changes.^{[142][Note 5]}

Far East

In the New Year Honours, announced on 1 January 1945, Park was appointed a Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath (KCB).^[143] Soon afterwards, he was appointed Allied Air Commander, South-East Asia Command (ACSEAC);^[144] Air Vice Marshal Charles Medhurst took over Park's role at Middle East Command.^[145] ACSEAC was a sought-after posting, and Slessor had agitated for the appointment. Portal deemed Park better suited to the role, given his operational experience.^[146] After he was invested with his KCB at Buckingham Palace by King George VI on 14 February, he and his wife departed the United Kingdom for Calcutta to take up his post, replacing Air Marshal Guy Garrod.^{[144][Note 6]}

Once in his new command, one of Park's tasks was ensuring the aerial provision of General William Slim's 14th Army, which was advancing through Burma to Rangoon. Many of his aircraft were engaged for several weeks dropping over 1,900 tons of supplies on a daily basis to the advancing British troops.^[144] One of Park's concerns was the British Army's lack of urgency in repairing airfields captured by the 14th Army as it moved towards Rangoon. Bringing these into service would have allowed him to shorten the flight times for the supply aircraft flying from their bases in India. It would often take several weeks after their capture before the airfields were operational, a delay Park believed would have been much greater if not for his urging.^[147] He also maintained his longstanding practice of visiting the RAF stations of his command, despite its wide range, which extended from Kandy, where he was initially based until shifting to Singapore, northwest to Quetta, south to the Cocos Islands and Hong Kong to the northeast.^[148]

Park (far right) on the steps of the Municipal Building with Lord Mountbatten (centre, in white) following the formal surrender of the Japanese

Newly promoted to air chief marshal,^[149] on 12 September Park was present in his capacity as ACSEAC for the formal surrender of the Japanese forces in the region, the ceremony being held in Singapore.^[150] In the aftermath of the Japanese surrender, Park's duties shifted to repatriating around 125,000 Allied internees, military and civilian, from prisons in the South East Asia region. To supplement his resources for this work, he impressed Japanese aircraft and personnel into service.^[151] There was also the matter of returning British soldiers and airmen to the United Kingdom, which required coordination with Transport Command as well as his own ACSEAC.^[152] The rate of return of RAF personnel was of particular concern as a proportion were required to fly and maintain the transports; this meant that more jobs in the civilian sector were going to former soldiers and sailors. Park sought to shorten the term of service to three years for single men, and this came into effect in April 1946.^[153]

Footnotes

Citations