The timeline of historic inventions is a chronological list of particularly important or significant technological inventions and their inventors, where known.[nb 1]

Paleolithic

The dates listed in this section refer to the earliest evidence of an invention found and dated by archaeologists (or in a few cases, suggested by indirect evidence). Dates are often approximate and change as more research is done, reported and seen. Older examples of any given technology are often found. The locations listed are for the site where the earliest solid evidence has been found, but especially for the earlier inventions, there is little certainty how close that may be to where the invention took place.

Lower Paleolithic

The Lower Paleolithic period lasted over 3 million years, and corresponds to the human species prior to the emergence of Homo sapiens. The original divergence between humans and chimpanzees occurred 13 (Mya), however interbreeding continued until as recently as 4 Ma, with the first species clearly belonging to the human (and not chimpanzee) lineage being Australopithecus anamensis. This time period is characterized as an ice age with regular periodic warmer periods – interglacial episodes.

Middle Paleolithic

The dawn of Homo sapiens around 300 kya coincides with the start of the Middle Paleolithic period. Towards the middle of this 250,000-year period, humans begin to migrate out of Africa, and the later part of the period shows the beginning of long-distance trade, religious rites and other behavior associated with Behavioral modernity.

Upper Paleolithic to Early Mesolithic

50 ka has been regarded by some as the beginning of behavioral modernity, defining the Upper Paleolithic period, which lasted nearly 40,000 years (though some research dates the beginning of behavioral modernity earlier to the Middle Paleolithic). This is characterized by the widespread observation of religious rites, artistic expression and the appearance of tools made for purely intellectual or artistic pursuits.

Agricultural and proto-agricultural eras

The end of the Last Glacial Period ("ice age") and the beginning of the Holocene around 11.7 ka coincide with the Agricultural Revolution, marking the beginning of the agricultural era, which persisted there until the industrial revolution.

Neolithic and Late Mesolithic

During the Neolithic period, lasting 8400 years, stone remained the predominant material for toolmaking, although copper and arsenic bronze were developed towards the end of this period.

Bronze Age

The Nippur cubit-rod, c.2650 BCE, in the Archeological Museum of Istanbul, Turkey

The beginning of bronze-smelting coincides with the emergence of the first cities and of writing in the Ancient Near East and the Indus Valley. The Bronze Age starting in Eurasia in the 4th millennia BC and ended, in Eurasia, c.1300 BC.

Iron Age

The Late Bronze Age collapse occurs around 1300-1175 BC , extinguishing most Bronze-Age Near Eastern cultures, and significantly weakening the rest. This is coincident with the complete collapse of the Indus Valley civilisation. This event is followed by the beginning of the Iron Age. We define the Iron Age as ending in 510 BC for the purposes of this article, even though the typical definition is region-dependent (e.g. 510 BC in Greece, 322 BC in India, 200 BC in China), thus being an 800-year period.[nb 5]

With the Greco-Roman trispastos ("three-pulley-crane"), the simplest ancient crane, a single man tripled the weight he could lift than with his muscular strength alone.[185]

Classical antiquity and medieval era

5th century BC

4th century BC

Egyptian reed pens inside ivory and wooden palettes, the Louvre[214]

3rd century BC

An illustration depicting the papermaking process in Han Dynasty China.
The earliest fore-and-aft rigs, spritsails, appeared in the 2nd century BC in the Aegean Sea on small Greek craft.[237] Here a spritsail used on a Roman merchant ship (3rd century AD).

2nd century BC

1st century BC

1st century AD

2nd century

3rd century

Schematic of the Roman Hierapolis sawmill. Dated to the 3rd century AD, it is the earliest known machine to incorporate a crank and connecting rod mechanism.[262][263][264]

4th century

5th century

A Nepali Charkha in action

6th century

7th century

8th century

9th century

A Mongol bomb thrown against a charging Japanese samurai during the Mongol invasions of Japan after founding the Yuan Dynasty, 1281.

10th century

11th century

12th century

13th century

14th century

The 15th-century invention of the printing press with movable type by the German Johannes Gutenberg.[337]

15th century

16th century

[345][346]

Modern era

17th century

A 1609 title page of the Relation, the world's first newspaper (first published in 1605)[351][352]

18th century

1700s

1710s

1730s

1740s

1750s

1760s

1770s

1780s

1790s

19th century

1800s

1810s

Karl von Drais on his original Laufmaschine, the earliest two-wheeler, or hobbyhorse, in 1819

1820s

1830s

1840s

1850s

1860s

1870s

1880s

1890s

20th century

1900s

1910s

BERy articulated streetcar no. 2 in 1913. The Boston Elevated Railway was the world's first street railway system to use articulated streetcars.

1920s

1930s

1940s

1950s

1960s

The original 0 series Shinkansen train. Introduced in 1964, it reached a speed of 210 km/h (130 mph).

1970s

1980s

1990s

21st century

2000s

  • 2000: Sony develops the first prototypes for the Blu-ray optical disc format. The first prototype player was released in 2004.
  • 2000: First documented placement of Geocaching, an outdoor recreational activity, in which participants use a Global Positioning System (GPS) receiver or mobile device and other navigational techniques to hide and seek containers, took place on May 3, 2000, by Dave Ulmer of Beavercreek, Oregon.
  • 2001: The Xbox Launches and is the first game console with internal storage
  • 2004: First podcast, invented by Adam Curry and Dave Winer, is a program made available in digital format for download over the Internet and it usually features one or more recurring hosts engaged in a discussion about a particular topic or current event.[473][474][475]
  • 2005: YouTube, the first popular video-streaming site, was founded
  • 2007: Netflix debuted the first popular video-on-demand service
  • 2007: The Bank of Scotland develops the worlds first banking app
  • 2007: SoundCloud, the first on-demand service to focus on music is debuted
  • 2007: First Kindle introduced by Amazon (company) founder and CEO Jeff Bezos, who instructed the company's employees to build the world's best e-reader before Amazon's competitors could. Amazon originally used the codename Fiona for the device. This hardware evolved from the original Kindle introduced in 2007 and the Kindle DX (with its larger 9.7" screen) introduced in 2009.[476]
  • 2008: Satoshi Nakamoto develops the first blockchain.[477]
  • 2009: The Zeebo is released becoming the first digital-only video game console

2010s

2020s

See also

By type

Notes

  1. Dates for inventions are often controversial. Sometimes inventions are invented by several inventors around the same time, or may be invented in an impractical form many years before another inventor improves the invention into a more practical form. Where there is ambiguity, the date of the first known working version of the invention is used here.
  2. Earthen pipes were later used in the Indus Valley c. 2700 BC for a city-scale urban drainage system,[107] and more durable copper drainage pipes appeared in Egypt, by the time of the construction of the Pyramid of Sahure at Abusir, c.2400 BCE.[108]
  3. Shell, Terracotta, Copper, and Ivory rulers were in use by the Indus Valley civilisation in what today is Pakistan, and North West India, prior to 1500 BCE.[141]
  4. A competing claim is from Lothal dockyard in India,[149][150][151][152][153] constructed at some point between 2400-2000 BC;[154] however, more precise dating does not exist.
  5. the uncertainty in dating several Indian developments between 600 BC and 300 AD, due to the tradition that existed of editing existing documents (such as the Sushruta Samhita and Arthashastra) without specifically documenting the edit. Most such documents were canonized at the start of the Gupta empire (mid-3rd century AD).
  6. A 10th century AD, Damascus steel blade, analysed under an electron microscope, contains nano-meter tubes in its metal alloy. Their presence has been suggested to be down to transition-metal impurities in the ores once used to produce Wootz Steel in South India.[188]
  7. Although it is recorded that the Han Dynasty (202 BC – AD 220) court eunuch Cai Lun (born c. 50–121 AD) invented the pulp papermaking process and established the use of new raw materials used in making paper, ancient padding and wrapping paper artifacts dating to the 2nd century BC have been found in China, the oldest example of pulp papermaking being a map from Fangmatan, Gansu.[238]

Footnotes

  1. Wong, Kate. "Archaeologists Take Wrong Turn, Find World's Oldest Stone Tools [Update]". Retrieved 1 August 2018.
  2. Semaw, S.; M. J. Rogers; J. Quade; P. R. Renne; R. F. Butler; M. Domínguez-Rodrigo; D. Stout; W. S. Hart; T. Pickering; S. W. Simpson (2003). "2.6-Million-year-old stone tools and associated bones from OGS-6 and OGS-7, Gona, Afar, Ethiopia". Journal of Human Evolution. 45 (2): 169–177. doi:10.1016/S0047-2484(03)00093-9. PMID 14529651.
  3. De Heinzelin, J; Clark, JD; White, T; Hart, W; Renne, P; Woldegabriel, G; Beyene, Y; Vrba, E (1999). "Environment and behavior of 2.5-million-year-old Bouri hominids". Science. 284 (5414): 625–9. Bibcode:1999Sci...284..625D. doi:10.1126/science.284.5414.625. PMID 10213682.
  4. Toth, Nicholas; Schick, Kathy (2009), "African Origins", in Scarre, Chris (ed.), The Human Past: World Prehistory and the Development of Human Societies (2nd ed.), London: Thames and Hudson, pp. 67–68
  5. "Invention of cooking drove evolution of the human species, new book argues". harvard.edu. 1 June 2009. Retrieved 26 March 2018.
  6. "Until the Wonderwerk Cave find, Gesher Benot Ya'aqov, a lakeside site in Israel, was considered to have the oldest generally accepted evidence of human-controlled fire".
  7. James, Steven R. (February 1989). "Hominid Use of Fire in the Lower and Middle Pleistocene: A Review of the Evidence" (PDF). Current Anthropology. University of Chicago Press. 30 (1): 1–26. doi:10.1086/203705. S2CID 146473957. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 December 2015. Retrieved 4 April 2012.
  8. "Anthropologists have yet to find an Acheulian hand axe gripped in a Homo erectus fist but most credit Homo erectus with developing the technology."
  9. Lepre, Christopher J.; Roche, Hélène; Kent, Dennis V.; Harmand, Sonia; Quinn, Rhonda L.; Brugal, Jean-Philippe; Texier, Pierre-Jean; Lenoble, Arnaud; Feibel, Craig S. (2011). "An earlier origin for the Acheulian". Nature. 477 (7362): 82–85. Bibcode:2011Natur.477...82L. doi:10.1038/nature10372. PMID 21886161. S2CID 4419567.
  10. Uomini, Natalie Thaïs; Meyer, Georg Friedrich (30 August 2013). Petraglia, Michael D. (ed.). "Shared Brain Lateralization Patterns in Language and Acheulean Stone Tool Production: A Functional Transcranial Doppler Ultrasound Study". PLOS ONE. 8 (8): e72693. Bibcode:2013PLoSO...872693U. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0072693. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 3758346. PMID 24023634.
  11. Perreault, C.; Mathew, S. (2012). "Dating the origin of language using phonemic diversity". PLOS ONE. 7 (4): e35289. Bibcode:2012PLoSO...735289P. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0035289. PMC 3338724. PMID 22558135.
  12. "Early humans make bone tools". Smithsonian Institution's Human Origins Program. 17 February 2010. Archived from the original on 26 November 2020. Retrieved 3 March 2020.
  13. "Plakias Survey Finds Mesolithic and Palaeolithic Artifacts on Crete". www.ascsa.edu.gr. Retrieved 28 October 2011.
  14. First Mariners – Archaeology Magazine Archive. Archive.archaeology.org. Retrieved on 16 November 2013.
  15. Wilkins, J.; Schoville, B. J.; Brown, K. S.; Chazan, M. (15 November 2012). "Evidence for Early Hafted Hunting Technology". Science. 6109. 338 (6109): 942–946. Bibcode:2012Sci...338..942W. doi:10.1126/science.1227608. PMID 23161998. S2CID 206544031.
  16. Barham, L.; Duller, G.A.T.; Candy, I.; et al. (2023). "Evidence for the earliest structural use of wood at least 476,000 years ago". Nature. 622: 107–111. doi:10.1038/s41586-023-06557-9.
  17. "BBC News – SCI/TECH – Earliest evidence of art found". BBC News. Retrieved 26 March 2018.
  18. Kouwenhoven, Arlette P., World's Oldest Spears
  19. Richter, D.; Krbetschek, M. (2015). "The age of the Lower Paleolithic occupation at Schöningen". Journal of Human Evolution. 89: 46–56. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.003. PMID 26212768.
  20. Chatterjee, Rhitu (15 March 2018). "Scientists Are Amazed By Stone Age Tools They Dug Up In Kenya". NPR. Retrieved 15 March 2018.
  21. Yong, Ed (15 March 2018). "A Cultural Leap at the Dawn of Humanity - New finds from Kenya suggest that humans used long-distance trade networks, sophisticated tools, and symbolic pigments right from the dawn of our species". The Atlantic. Retrieved 15 March 2018.
  22. Brooks AS, Yellen JE, Potts R, Behrensmeyer AK, Deino AL, Leslie DE, Ambrose SH, Ferguson JR, d'Errico F, Zipkin AM, Whittaker S, Post J, Veatch EG, Foecke K, Clark JB (2018). "Long-distance stone transport and pigment use in the earliest Middle Stone Age". Science. 360 (6384): 90–94. Bibcode:2018Sci...360...90B. doi:10.1126/science.aao2646. PMID 29545508.
  23. Sahle, Y.; Hutchings, W. K.; Braun, D. R.; Sealy, J. C.; Morgan, L. E.; Negash, A.; Atnafu, B. (2013). Petraglia, Michael D (ed.). "Earliest Stone-Tipped Projectiles from the Ethiopian Rift Date to >279,000 Years Ago". PLOS ONE. 8 (11): e78092. Bibcode:2013PLoSO...878092S. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0078092. PMC 3827237. PMID 24236011.
  24. Schmidt, P.; Blessing, M.; Rageot, M.; Iovita, R.; Pfleging, J.; Nickel, K. G.; Righetti, L.; Tennie, C. (2019). "Birch tar extraction does not prove Neanderthal behavioral complexity". PNAS. 116 (36): 17707–17711. Bibcode:2019PNAS..11617707S. doi:10.1073/pnas.1911137116. PMC 6731756. PMID 31427508.
  25. Wadley, L; Hodgskiss, T; Grant, M (June 2009). "Implications for complex cognition from the hafting of tools with compound adhesives in the Middle Stone Age, South Africa". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 106 (24): 9590–4. Bibcode:2009PNAS..106.9590W. doi:10.1073/pnas.0900957106. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 2700998. PMID 19433786.
  26. Wadley, Lyn (1 June 2010). "Compound‐Adhesive Manufacture as a Behavioral Proxy for Complex Cognition in the Middle Stone Age". Current Anthropology. 51 (s1): S111–S119. doi:10.1086/649836. S2CID 56253913.
  27. "200,000 years ago, humans preferred to sleep in beds". phys.org. Retrieved 6 September 2020.
  28. "The oldest known grass beds from 200,000 years ago included insect repellents". Science News. 13 August 2020. Retrieved 6 September 2020.
  29. Wadley, Lyn; Esteban, Irene; Peña, Paloma de la; Wojcieszak, Marine; Stratford, Dominic; Lennox, Sandra; d'Errico, Francesco; Rosso, Daniela Eugenia; Orange, François; Backwell, Lucinda; Sievers, Christine (14 August 2020). "Fire and grass-bedding construction 200 thousand years ago at Border Cave, South Africa". Science. 369 (6505): 863–866. Bibcode:2020Sci...369..863W. doi:10.1126/science.abc7239. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 32792402. S2CID 221113832. Retrieved 6 September 2020.
  30. Toups, M. A.; Kitchen, A.; Light, J. E.; Reed, D. L. (2011). "Origin of Clothing Lice Indicates Early Clothing Use by Anatomically Modern Humans in Africa". Molecular Biology and Evolution. 28: 29–32. doi:10.1093/molbev/msq234. PMC 3002236. PMID 20823373.
  31. Bellis, Mary (1 February 2016). "The History of Clothing – How Did Specific Items of Clothing Develop?". The About Group. Archived from the original on 20 February 2023. Retrieved 12 August 2016.
  32. Brown, K. S.; Marean, C. W.; Herries, A. I. R.; Jacobs, Z.; Tribolo, C.; Braun, D.; Roberts, D. L.; Meyer, M. C.; Bernatchez, J. (2009). "Fire As an Engineering Tool of Early Modern Humans". Science. 325 (5942): 859–862. Bibcode:2009Sci...325..859B. doi:10.1126/science.1175028. hdl:11422/11102. PMID 19679810. S2CID 43916405.
  33. Vanhaereny, M.; d'Errico, Francesco; Stringer, Chris; James, Sarah L.; Todd, Jonathan A.; Mienis, Henk K. (2006). "Middle Paleolithic Shell Beads in Israel and Algeria". Science. 312 (5781): 1785–1788. Bibcode:2006Sci...312.1785V. doi:10.1126/science.1128139. PMID 16794076. S2CID 31098527.
  34. Amos, Jonathan (13 October 2011). "A Cultural Leap at the Dawn of Humanity - Ancient 'paint factory' unearthed". BBC News. Retrieved 13 October 2011.
  35. Vastag, Brian (13 October 2011). "South African cave yields paint from dawn of humanity". Washington Post. Retrieved 13 October 2011.
  36. Henshilwood, Christopher S.; et al. (2011). "A 100,000-Year-Old Ochre-Processing Workshop at Blombos Cave, South Africa". Science. 334 (6053): 219–222. Bibcode:2011Sci...334..219H. doi:10.1126/science.1211535. PMID 21998386. S2CID 40455940.
  37. Lieberman, Philip (1993). Uniquely Human page 163. Harvard University Press. ISBN 9780674921832. Retrieved 25 March 2011.
  38. Yellen, JE; AS Brooks; E Cornelissen; MJ Mehlman; K Stewart (28 April 1995). "A middle stone age worked bone industry from Katanda, Upper Semliki Valley, Zaire". Science. 268 (5210): 553–556. Bibcode:1995Sci...268..553Y. doi:10.1126/science.7725100. PMID 7725100.
  39. Backwell, L; d'Errico, F; Wadley, L (2008). "Middle Stone Age bone tools from the Howiesons Poort layers, Sibudu Cave, South Africa". Journal of Archaeological Science. 35 (6): 1566–1580. Bibcode:2008JArSc..35.1566B. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2007.11.006.
  40. Wadley, Lyn (2008). "The Howieson's Poort industry of Sibudu Cave". South African Archaeological Society Goodwin Series. 10.
  41. Lombard M, Phillips L (2010). "Indications of bow and stone-tipped arrow use 64,000 years ago in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa". Antiquity. 84 (325): 635–648. doi:10.1017/S0003598X00100134. S2CID 162438490.
  42. Lombard M (2011). "Quartz-tipped arrows older than 60 kya: further use-trace evidence from Sibudu, Kwa-Zulu-Natal, South Africa". Journal of Archaeological Science. 38 (8): 1918–1930. Bibcode:2011JArSc..38.1918L. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2011.04.001.
  43. Backwell, L; Bradfield, J; Carlson, KJ; Jashashvili, T; Wadley, L; d'Errico, F (2018). "The antiquity of bow-and-arrow technology: evidence from Middle Stone Age layers at Sibudu Cave". Journal of Archaeological Science. 92 (362): 289–303. doi:10.15184/aqy.2018.11.
  44. D. L. Hoffmann; C. D. Standish; M. García-Diez; P. B. Pettitt; J. A. Milton; J. Zilhão; J. J. Alcolea-González; P. Cantalejo-Duarte; H. Collado; R. de Balbín; M. Lorblanchet; J. Ramos-Muñoz; G.-Ch. Weniger; A. W. G. Pike (2018). "U-Th dating of carbonate crusts reveals Neandertal origin of Iberian cave art". Science. 359 (6378): 912–915. Bibcode:2018Sci...359..912H. doi:10.1126/science.aap7778. hdl:10498/21578. PMID 29472483. "we present dating results for three sites in Spain that show that cave art emerged in Iberia substantially earlier than previously thought. Uranium-thorium (U-Th) dates on carbonate crusts overlying paintings provide minimum ages for a red linear motif in La Pasiega (Cantabria), a hand stencil in Maltravieso (Extremadura), and red-painted speleothems in Ardales (Andalucía). Collectively, these results show that cave art in Iberia is older than 64.8 thousand years (ka). This cave art is the earliest dated so far and predates, by at least 20 ka, the arrival of modern humans in Europe, which implies Neandertal authorship."
  45. "World's oldest known ground-edge stone axe fragments found in WA". ABC News. 11 May 2016. Retrieved 3 April 2018.
  46. "Prehistoric Japan, New perspectives on insular East Asia", Keiji Imamura, University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu, ISBN 0-8248-1853-9
  47. Swaziland Natural Trust Commission, "Cultural Resources – Malolotja Archaeology, Lion Cavern", Retrieved 27 August 2007, "Swaziland National Trust Commission – Cultural Resources – Malolotja Archaeology, Lion Cavern". Archived from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 5 February 2016..
  48. Peace Parks Foundation, "Major Features: Cultural Importance". Republic of South Africa: Author. Retrieved 27 August 2007, .
  49. Trinkaus, Erik; Shang, Hong (2008). "Anatomical evidence for the antiquity of human footwear: Tianyuan and Sunghir". Journal of Archaeological Science. 35 (7): 1928–1933. Bibcode:2008JArSc..35.1928T. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2007.12.002.
  50. Connolly, Tom. "The World's Oldest Shoes". University of Oregon. Archived from the original on 22 July 2012. Retrieved 22 July 2012.
  51. It is called a notched bone, illustrated in Fig. 1, 12 d'Errico, F.; Backwell, L.; Villa, P.; Degano, I.; Lucejko, J. J.; Bamford, M. K.; Higham, T. F. G.; Colombini, M. P.; Beaumont, P. B. (2012). "Early evidence of San material culture represented by organic artifacts from Border Cave, South Africa". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 109 (33): 13214–13219. Bibcode:2012PNAS..10913214D. doi:10.1073/pnas.1204213109. PMC 3421171. PMID 22847420.
  52. "Earliest music instruments found". BBC News. 24 May 2012. Retrieved 4 November 2023.
  53. Higham, Thomas; Basell, Laura; Jacobi, Roger; Wood, Rachel; Ramsey, Christopher Bronk; Conard, Nicholas J. (1 June 2012). "Τesting models for the beginnings of the Aurignacian and the advent of figurative art and music: The radiocarbon chronology of Geißenklösterle". Journal of Human Evolution. 62 (6): 664–676. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2012.03.003. ISSN 0047-2484. PMID 22575323.
  54. Wright, K. (15 March 1991). "The Origins and development of ground stone assemblages in Late Pleistocene Southwest Asia". Paléorient. 17 (1): 19–45. doi:10.3406/paleo.1991.4537 via www.persee.fr.
  55. "Dolni Vestonice and Pavlov sites". Donsmaps.com. Retrieved 26 April 2016.
  56. Svoboda, Jiří; Králík, Miroslav; Čulíková, Věra; Hladilová, Šárka; Novák, Martin; NývltováFišáková, Miriam; Nývlt, Daniel; Zelinková, Michaela (2009). "Pavlov VI: an Upper Palaeolithic living unit". Antiquity. 83 (320): 282–295. doi:10.1017/S0003598X00098434. S2CID 56326310. Retrieved 26 March 2018.
  57. Kvavadze, Eliso; Bar-Yosef, Ofer; Belfer-Cohen, Anna; Boaretto, Elisabetta; Jakeli, Nino; Matskevich, Zinovi; Meshveliani, Tengiz (11 September 2009). "30,000-Year-Old Wild Flax Fibers". Science. 325 (5946): 1359. Bibcode:2009Sci...325.1359K. doi:10.1126/science.1175404. PMID 19745144. S2CID 206520793.
  58. "Centuries-old fabric found in Çatalhöyük". Hürriyet Daily News. 4 February 2014. Retrieved 26 March 2018.
  59. Langer, William L., ed. (1972). An Encyclopedia of World History (5th ed.). Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company. pp. 9. ISBN 0-395-13592-3.
  60. Lucentini, Jack. "Dr. Michael A. Rappenglueck sees maps of the night sky, and images of shamanistic ritual teeming with cosmological meaning". space. Retrieved 29 September 2009.
  61. "BBC News - SCI/TECH - Ice Age star map discovered". BBC News. Retrieved 13 April 2018.
  62. Small, Meredith F. (April 2002). "String theory: the tradition of spinning raw fibers dates back 28,000 years (At The Museum)". Natural History. 111 (3): 14(2).
  63. "Ceramic history". depts.washington.edu.
  64. Perri, Angela R.; Feuerborn, Tatiana R.; Frantz, Laurent A. F.; Larson, Greger; Malhi, Ripan S.; Meltzer, David J.; Witt, Kelsey E. (2021). "Dog domestication and the dual dispersal of people and dogs into the Americas". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 118 (6): e2010083118. Bibcode:2021PNAS..11810083P. doi:10.1073/pnas.2010083118. PMC 8017920. PMID 33495362. Advances in the isolation and sequencing of ancient DNA [... suggest] that dogs were domesticated in Siberia by ~23,000 y ago, possibly while both people and wolves were isolated during the harsh climate of the Last Glacial Maximum.
  65. Michael Price (16 September 2016). "World's oldest fish hook found on Okinawa". Science. Retrieved 6 August 2017.
  66. "World's oldest fish hooks found in Japanese island cave". BBC News. 18 September 2016. Retrieved 18 September 2016.
  67. "Chinese pottery may be earliest discovered". Associated Press. 1 June 2009
  68. Briggs, Helen (17 July 2018). "Prehistoric bake-off: Recipe for oldest bread revealed". British Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved 17 July 2018.
  69. Arranz-Otaegui, Amaia; Gonzalez Carretero, Lara; Ramsey, Monica N.; Fuller, Dorian Q.; Richter, Tobias (16 July 2018). "Archaeobotanical evidence reveals the origins of bread 14,400 years ago in northeastern Jordan". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 115 (31): 7925–7930. Bibcode:2018PNAS..115.7925A. doi:10.1073/pnas.1801071115. PMC 6077754. PMID 30012614.
  70. "Farming Was So Nice, It Was Invented at Least Twice". sciencemag.org. 4 July 2013. Retrieved 26 March 2018.
  71. "The Development of Agriculture". nationalgeographic.com. Archived from the original on 14 April 2016. Retrieved 26 March 2018.
  72. Krebs, Robert E. & Carolyn A. (2003). Groundbreaking Scientific Experiments, Inventions & Discoveries of the Ancient World. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-313-31342-3.
  73. Simmons, Paula; Carol Ekarius (2001). Storey's Guide to Raising Sheep. North Adams, MA: Storey Publishing LLC. ISBN 978-1-58017-262-2.
  74. Zhijun, Zhao (1998). "The Middle Yangtze region in China is one place where rice was domesticated: phytolith evidence from the Diaotonghuan Cave, Northern Jiangxi". Antiquity. 72 (278): 885–897. doi:10.1017/s0003598x00087524. S2CID 161495218.
  75. Curry, Andrew. "Gobekli Tepe: The World's First Temple?". smithsonianmag.com. Retrieved 26 March 2018.
  76. Tellier, Luc-Normand (2009). Urban World History: An Economic and Geographical Perspective. PUQ. ISBN 978-2-7605-2209-1.
  77. Artioli, G. (2019). The Vitruvian legacy: mortars and binders before and after the Roman world (PDF). Vol. 20. European Mineralogical Union. pp. 151–202. ISBN 978-0903056-61-8.
  78. Aurangzeb Khan; Carsten Lemmen (2013). "Bricks and urbanism in the Indus Valley rise and decline". Academia. arXiv:1303.1426. Retrieved 16 February 2013.
  79. "Stone Age wells found in Cyprus". BBC News. 25 June 2009. Archived from the original on 5 October 2013. Retrieved 31 July 2009.
  80. "World's ever first known town – Catalhuyuk | Cities Now". Archived from the original on 18 November 2015. Retrieved 1 November 2015.
  81. McGovern, Patrick E.; Zhang, Juzhong; Tang, Jigen; Zhang, Zhiqing; Hall, Gretchen R.; Moreau, Robert A.; Nuñez, Alberto; Butrym, Eric D.; Richards, Michael P.; Wang, Chen-shan; Cheng, Guangsheng; Zhao, Zhijun; Wang, Changsui (21 December 2004). "Fermented beverages of pre- and proto-historic China". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 101 (51): 17593–17598. Bibcode:2004PNAS..10117593M. doi:10.1073/pnas.0407921102. PMC 539767. PMID 15590771.
  82. Grimm, David (26 May 2017). "Earliest evidence for dog breeding found on remote Siberian island". Science. Retrieved 28 May 2020.
  83. Heskel, Dennis L. (1983). "A Model for the Adoption of Metallurgy in the Ancient Middle East". Current Anthropology. 24 (3): 362–366. doi:10.1086/203007. S2CID 144332393.
  84. Piotr Bienkowski; Alan Millard (15 April 2010). Dictionary of the Ancient Near East. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 233. ISBN 978-0-8122-2115-2.
  85. Flannery, Kent V. (1969). "Origins and ecological effects of early domestication in Iran and the Near East". In Ucko, Peter John; Dimbleby, G. W. (eds.). The Domestication and Exploitation of Plants and Animals. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Transaction Publishers (published 2007). p. 89. ISBN 9780202365572. Retrieved 12 January 2019.
  86. Lawton, H. W.; Wilke, P. J. (1979). "Ancient Agricultural Systems in Dry Regions of the Old World". In Hall, A. E.; Cannell, G. H.; Lawton, H.W. (eds.). Agriculture in Semi-Arid Environments. Ecological Studies. Vol. 34 (reprint ed.). Berlin: Springer Science & Business Media (published 2012). p. 13. ISBN 9783642673283. Retrieved 12 January 2019.
  87. Mattessich, Richard (2002). "The Oldest Writings, and Inventory Tags of Egypt". The Accounting Historians Journal. 29 (1): 195–208. doi:10.2308/0148-4184.29.1.195. JSTOR 40698264. S2CID 160704269.
  88. Carter, Robert (8 December 2012). "The Neolithic origins of seafaring in the Arabian Gulf". Archaeology International. 6. doi:10.5334/ai.0613. ISSN 2048-4194.
  89. John Coleman Darnell (2006). "The Wadi of the Horus Qa-a: A Tableau of Royal Ritual Power in the Theban Western Desert". Yale University. Archived from the original on 1 February 2011. Retrieved 24 August 2010.
  90. The sea-craft of prehistory, p76, by Paul Johnstone, Routledge, 1980
  91. Rehren, Thilo; Radivojević, Miljana; Pernicka, Ernst. "On the origins of extractive metallurgy: new evidence from Europe (Radivojevic et al 2010, JAS 37)". academia.edu. Retrieved 26 March 2018.
  92. Galili, Ehud; Benjamin, Jonathan; Eshed, Vered; Rosen, Baruch; McCarthy, John; Horwitz, Liora Kolska (18 December 2019). "A submerged 7000-year-old village and seawall demonstrate earliest known coastal defence against sea-level rise". PLOS ONE. 14 (12): e0222560. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0222560. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 6919572. PMID 31851675.
  93. Li, Li (2011). China's Cultural Relics (3rd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 139–140. ISBN 9780521186568.
  94. Loewe (1968), 170–171
  95. Mithen, Steven (2006), After the Ice: A Global Human History, 20,000-5000 BC, Harvard University Press, pp. 411–412, ISBN 978-0-674-01999-7
  96. Moulherat, C.; Tengberg, M.; Haquet, J. R. M. F.; Mille, B. ̂T. (2002). "First Evidence of Cotton at Neolithic Mehrgarh, Pakistan: Analysis of Mineralized Fibres from a Copper Bead". Journal of Archaeological Science. 29 (12): 1393–1401. Bibcode:2002JArSc..29.1393M. doi:10.1006/jasc.2001.0779.
  97. JIA, Yinhua; PAN, Zhaoe; HE, Shoupu; GONG, Wenfang; GENG, Xiaoli; PANG, Baoyin; WANG, Liru; DU, Xiongming (2018). "Genetic diversity and population structure of Gossypium arboreum L. collected in China". Journal of Cotton Research. 1 (1). doi:10.1186/s42397-018-0011-0. ISSN 2523-3254.
  98. Deng, Gang. (1997). Chinese Maritime Activities and Socioeconomic Development, c. 2100 B.C.–1900 A.D. Westport: Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-313-29212-4, p. 22.
  99. Miriam T. Stark (15 April 2008). Archaeology of Asia. John Wiley & Sons. p. 130. ISBN 978-1-4051-5303-4. Retrieved 5 October 2012.
  100. Radivojević, Miljana; Rehren, Thilo; Kuzmanović-Cvetković, Julka; Jovanović, Marija; Northover, J. Peter (1 December 2013). "Tainted ores and the rise of tin bronzes in Eurasia, c. 6500 years ago". Antiquity. 87 (338): 1030–1045. doi:10.1017/S0003598X0004984X. ISSN 0003-598X. S2CID 46355411.
  101. Muhly, J.D., The Beginnings of Metallurgy in the Old World. In Maddin 1988
  102. Thoury, M.; et al. (2016). "High spatial dynamics-photoluminescence imaging reveals the metallurgy of the earliest lost-wax cast object". Nature Communications. 7. doi:10.1038/ncomms13356.
  103. Yoshinori Yasuda (2012). Water Civilization: From Yangtze to Khmer Civilizations. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 30–31. ISBN 9784431541103.
  104. Hershey, W. (1940). The Book of Diamonds. New York: Hearthside Press. pp. 22–28. ISBN 978-1-4179-7715-4.
  105. Beazley, Robert E.; Lassoie, James P. (22 June 2017). Himalayan Mobilities: An Exploration of the Impact of Expanding Rural Road Networks on Social and Ecological Systems in the Nepalese Himalaya. Springer. ISBN 978-3-319-55757-1.
  106. Eslamian, Saeid (2014). Handbook of Engineering Hydrology: Environmental Hydrology and Water Management, Book 3. Boca Raton: CRC Press. p. 168. ISBN 9781466552500..
  107. Teresi, Dick (2002). Lost Discoveries: The Ancient Roots of Modern Science--from the Babylonians to the Maya. New York: Simon & Schuster. pp. 351–352. ISBN 0-684-83718-8.
  108. 1 2 Bunson, Margaret (14 May 2014). Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt. Infobase Publishing. p. 6. ISBN 978-1-4381-0997-8.
  109. Jared Diamond "The Third Chimpanzee"
  110. D. T. Potts (2012). A Companion to the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East. p. 285.
  111. Anthony, David A. (2007). The horse, the wheel, and language: how Bronze-Age riders from the Eurasian steppes shaped the modern world. Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Press. p. 67. ISBN 978-0-691-05887-0.
  112. Mary Schoeser (28 May 2007). Silk. Yale University Press. pp. 18. ISBN 978-0-300-11741-7.
  113. Matossian Shaping World History p. 43
  114. "What We Theorize – When and Where Domestication Occurred". International Museum of the Horse. Archived from the original on 19 July 2016. Retrieved 27 January 2015.
  115. "Horsey-aeology, Binary Black Holes, Tracking Red Tides, Fish Re-evolution, Walk Like a Man, Fact or Fiction". Quirks and Quarks Podcast with Bob Macdonald. CBC Radio. 7 March 2009. Retrieved 18 September 2010.
  116. Powell MA (2004). "9: Wine and the vine in ancient Mesopotamia: the cuneiform evidence". In McGovern PE, Fleming SJ, Katz SH (eds.). The Origins and Ancient History of Wine. Food and Nutrition in History and Anthropology. Vol. 11 (1 ed.). Amsterdam: Taylor & Francis. pp. 96–124. ISBN 9780203392836. ISSN 0275-5769. Retrieved 15 September 2010.
  117. Brown, Brian A.; Feldman, Marian H. (2013). Critical Approaches to Ancient Near Eastern Art. Walter de Gruyter. p. 304. ISBN 9781614510352.
  118. "Institute of Archeology of CAS report". Archived from the original on 29 August 2018. Retrieved 28 August 2018.
  119. B. B. Lal, India 1947–1997: New Light on the Indus Civilization
  120. Deter-Wolf, Aaron; Robitaille, Benoît; Krutak, Lars; Galliot, Sébastien (February 2016). "The World's Oldest Tattoos" (PDF). Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports. 5: 19–24. Bibcode:2016JArSR...5...19D. doi:10.1016/j.jasrep.2015.11.007. S2CID 162580662.
  121. Deter-Wolf, Aaron (11 November 2015), It's official: Ötzi the Iceman has the oldest tattoos in the world, RedOrbit.com, retrieved 25 July 2019
  122. Karen Radner; Eleanor Robson (22 September 2011). The Oxford Handbook of Cuneiform Culture. Oxford University Press. pp. 86. ISBN 978-0-19-955730-1.
  123. "Beginning in the pottery-phase of the Neolithic, clay tokens are widely attested as a system of counting and identifying specific amounts of specified livestock or commodities. The tokens, enclosed in clay envelopes after being impressed on their rounded surface, were gradually replaced by impressions on flat or plano-convex tablets, and these in turn by more or less conventionalized pictures of the tokens incised on the clay with a reed stylus. The transition to writing was complete W. Hallo; W. Simpson (1971). The Ancient Near East. New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich. p. 25.
  124. "Uruk: The First City". www.metmuseum.org. 2003. Retrieved 28 February 2022.
  125. Mitchell, Piers D. (3 March 2016). Sanitation, Latrines and Intestinal Parasites in Past Populations. Routledge. p. 22. ISBN 978-1-317-05953-0.
  126. Smith, Monica L. (18 April 2019). Cities: The First 6,000 Years. Simon & Schuster UK. ISBN 978-1-4711-6367-8.
  127. George, A.R. (December 2015). "On Babylonian Lavatories and Sewers". Iraq. 77: 75–106. doi:10.1017/irq.2015.9. ISSN 0021-0889. S2CID 162653122.
  128. Finkel, Irving (2008). "Board Games". Beyond Babylon: Art, Trade, and Diplomacy in the Second Millennium B.C. Metropolitan Museum of Art. p. 151. ISBN 978-1-58839-295-4.
  129. "8 Oldest Board Games in the World". Oldest.org. 29 November 2017. Retrieved 12 March 2022.
  130. NASER MOGHADASI, Abdorreza (September 2015). "The Burnt City and the Evolution of the Concept of "Probability" In the Human Brain". Iranian Journal of Public Health. 44 (9): 1306–1307. ISSN 2251-6085. PMC 4645795. PMID 26587512.
  131. Possehl, Gregory. "Meluhha". In: J. Reade (ed.) The Indian Ocean in Antiquity. London: Kegan Paul Intl. 1996a, 133–208
  132. Cierny, J.; Weisgerber, G. (2003). "The "Bronze Age tin mines in Central Asia". In Giumlia-Mair, A.; Lo Schiavo, F. (eds.). The Problem of Early Tin. Oxford: Archaeopress. pp. 23–31. ISBN 1-84171-564-6.
  133. Steven Roger Fischer (4 April 2004). History of Writing. Reaktion Books. p. 47. ISBN 978-1-86189-167-9.
  134. "Papyrus: A Brief History – Dartmouth Ancient Books Lab". sites.dartmouth.edu. Retrieved 28 February 2022.
  135. Paul Johnson (3 November 1999). The Civilization Of Ancient Egypt. HarperCollins. p. 163. ISBN 978-0-06-019434-5.
  136. 1 2 "4,500-year-old harbor structures and papyrus texts unearthed in Egypt". NBC News. 16 April 2013. Retrieved 12 May 2020.
  137. Rodda, John; Ubertini, Lucio, eds. (2004). The Basis of Civilization – Water Science?. International Association of Hydrological Science. p. 161. ISBN 978-1-901502-57-2. OCLC 224463869.
  138. "World's oldest writing not poetry but a shopping receipt". 13 April 2011.
  139. Shiffman, Melvin (5 September 2012). Cosmetic Surgery: Art and Techniques. Springer. p. 20. ISBN 978-3-642-21837-8.
  140. Mazzola, Ricardo F.; Mazzola, Isabella C. (5 September 2012). "History of reconstructive and aesthetic surgery". In Neligan, Peter C.; Gurtner, Geoffrey C. (eds.). Plastic Surgery: Principles. Elsevier Health Sciences. pp. 11–12. ISBN 978-1-4557-1052-2.
  141. McIntosh, Jane (2008). The Ancient Indus Valley: New Perspectives. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-57607-907-2.
  142. Davreu, Robert (1978). "Cities of Mystery: The Lost Empire of the Indus Valley". The World's Last Mysteries. (second edition). Sydney: Reader's Digest. pp. 121-129. ISBN 978-0-909486-61-7.
  143. Kipfer, Barbara Ann (2000). Encyclopedic Dictionary of Archaeology. (Illustrated edition). New York: Springer. p. 229. ISBN 978-0-3064-6158-3.
  144. Khan, Dr Saifullah. "Chapter 2 Sanitation and wastewater technologies in Harappa/Indus valley civilization (ca. 2600-1900 BC)".
  145. Harappa, com. "'Great Bath' Mohenjadaro". Slide show with description by J. M. Kenoyer. Harappa.com. Retrieved 2 July 2012.
  146. "Indus River Valley Civilizations". History-world.org. Archived from the original on 1 July 2005. Retrieved 12 September 2008.
  147. Rahmstorf, Lorenz. "In Search of the Earliest Balance Weights, Scales and Weighing Systems from the East Mediterranean, the Near and Middle East".
  148. Stainburn, Samantha (18 April 2013). "Archeologists discover oldest Egyptian harbor ever found". Global Post. Retrieved 21 April 2013.
  149. "Foraminifera as an additional tool for archaeologists - Examples from the Arabian Sea". 25 September 2015.
  150. Codebò, Mario (2013). "ARCHAEOASTRONOMICAL SURVEYS IN LOTHAL (INDIA)". www.archaeoastronomy.it. Retrieved 10 May 2020.
  151. Frenez, D. (2014). Lothal re-visitation Project, a fine thread connecting Intis to contemporary Raveena (Via Oman). UK: BAR. pp. 263–267. ISBN 9781407313269.
  152. Rao, pages 27–28
  153. "Archaeological remains of a Harappa Port-Town, Lothal". UNESCO. UN. Retrieved 10 May 2020.
  154. S. R. Rao (1985). Lothal. Archaeological Survey of India. pp. 11–17.
  155. Ghosh, S. and Banerjee, Utpal Kumar, Indian Puppets, Abhinav Publications, 2006. ISBN 81-7017-435-X
  156. "Pulling the strings to resuscitate a dying art". The Hindu. Thanjavur, India. 17 August 2012.
  157. Needham, Joseph (22 January 2001). Science and Civilisation in China. Volume 6: Biology and biological technology. Part V: Fermentations and food science. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521652707.
  158. Venable, Shannon L. (2011). Gold : A Cultural Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, LLC. pp. 264. ISBN 978-0313-384318.
  159. Jackson, Howard (24 February 2022). The Bloomsbury Handbook of Lexicography. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-1-350-18172-4.
  160. S. R. Rao (1985). Lothal. Archaeological Survey of India. pp. 40–41.
  161. Rao (July 1992). "A Navigational Instrument of the Harappan Sailors" (PDF). Marine Archaeology. 3: 61–66. Notes: protractor described as "compass" in article.
  162. Pingree, David (1998). "Legacies in Astronomy and Celestial Omens". In Stephanie Dalley (ed.). The Legacy of Mesopotamia. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 125–126. ISBN 0-19-814946-8.
  163. Rao, N. Kameswara (December 2005). "Aspects of prehistoric astronomy in India" (PDF). Bulletin of the Astronomical Society of India. 33 (4): 499–511. Bibcode:2005BASI...33..499R. Retrieved 11 May 2007. It appears that two artifacts from Mohenjadaro and Harappa might correspond to these two instruments. Joshi and Parpola (1987) lists a few pots tapered at the bottom and having a hole on the side from the excavations at Mohenjadaro (Figure 3). A pot with a small hole to drain the water is very similar to clepsydras described by Ohashi to measure the time (similar to the utensil used over the lingum in Shiva temple for abhishekam).
  164. David S. Anthony, The Horse, The Wheel and Language: How bronze age riders from the Eurasian steppes shaped the modern world (2007), pp. 397-405.
  165. "History 101: Scissors". Daily Kos. Retrieved 28 February 2022.
  166. "British Library". www.bl.uk. Archived from the original on 1 March 2022. Retrieved 1 March 2022.
  167. Wilkins, Robert H. (1992) [First published 1965]. Neurosurgical Classics (2nd ed.). Park Ridge, Illinois: American Association of Neurological Surgeons. ISBN 978-1-879284-09-8. LCCN 2011293270.
  168. Lienhard, John H. "No. 993: SUNDIALS". The Engines of Our Ingenuity. Huston Public Media. Retrieved 1 March 2022.
  169. "Glassmaking may have begun in Egypt, not Mesopotamia". Science News. 22 November 2016. Retrieved 28 February 2022.
  170. History Channel, Where Did It Come From? Episode: "Ancient China: Agriculture"
  171. "Rubber balls used in Mesoamerican game 3,500 years ago". The Independent. 1 June 2010. Archived from the original on 7 May 2022. Retrieved 14 May 2020.
  172. Shelton, pp. 109–110. There is wide agreement on game originating in the tropical lowlands, likely the Gulf Coast or Pacific Coast.
  173. Heinrich Schliemann; Wilhelm Dörpfeld; Felix Adler (1885). Tiryns: The Prehistoric Palace of the Kings of Tiryns, the Results of the Latest Excavations. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. pp. 190, 203–04, 215.
  174. Sparavigna, Amelia Carolina (2011). "Ancient concrete works". arXiv:1110.5230 [physics.pop-ph].
  175. Jacobsen T and Lloyd S, (1935) "Sennacherib's Aqueduct at Jerwan", Oriental Institute Publications 24, Chicago University Press
  176. Lechtman and Hobbs "Roman Concrete and the Roman Architectural Revolution"
  177. "The History of Concrete". Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign. Archived from the original on 27 November 2012. Retrieved 8 January 2013.
  178. "What is a Lathe Machine? History, Parts, and Operation". Brighthub Engineering. 12 December 2009. Retrieved 26 March 2018.
  179. Early Antiquity By I.M. Drakonoff. 1991. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-14465-8. p. 372
  180. Rao, KP. "Iron Age in South India: Telangana and Andhra Pradesh". In Akinori Uesugi (ed.). Iron Age in South Asia via Academia.
  181. Levey, Martin (1959). Chemistry and Chemical Technology in Ancient Mesopotamia. Elsevier. p. 36. As already mentioned, the textual evidence for Sumero-Babylonian distillation is disclosed in a group of Akkadian tablets describing perfumery operations, dated ca. 1200 B.C.
  182. Beatie, Russel H. Saddles, University of Oklahoma Press, 1981 Archived 23 January 2014 at the Wayback Machine, ISBN 080611584X, 9780806115849 P.18-22
  183. Loades, Mike (2018), The Crossbow, Osprey
  184. M. Kroll, review of G. Le Rider's La naissance de la monnaie, Schweizerische Numismatische Rundschau 80 (2001), p. 526. D. Sear, Greek Coins and Their Values Vol. 2, Seaby, London, 1979, p. 317.
  185. Hans-Liudger, Dienel; Wolfgang, Meighörner (1997): "Der Tretradkran", Technikgeschichte series, 2nd ed., Deutsches Museum, München, p. 13
  186. Davidson, Hilda Ellis (1998). The Sword in Anglo-Saxon England: Its Archaeology and Literature. Boydell & Brewer Ltd. p. 20. ISBN 0-85115-716-5.
  187. Srinivasan, S.; Ranganathan, S. "Wootz Steel: an advanced material of the ancient world". Bangalore: Department of Metallurgy, Indian Institute of Science. Archived from the original on 19 November 2018.
  188. Sanderson, Katharine (15 November 2006). "Sharpest cut from nanotube sword". Nature: news061113–11. doi:10.1038/news061113-11. S2CID 136774602.
  189. Hoernle, A. F. Rudolf (1907). Studies in the Medicine of Ancient India: Osteology or the Bones of the Human Body. Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press.
  190. Wendy Doniger (2014), On Hinduism, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0199360079, page 79;
    Sarah Boslaugh (2007), Encyclopedia of Epidemiology, Volume 1, SAGE Publications, ISBN 978-1412928168, page 547, Quote: "The Hindu text known as Sushruta Samhita is possibly the earliest effort to classify diseases and injuries"
  191. Meulenbeld, Gerrit Jan (1999). A History of Indian Medical Literature. Groningen: Brill (all volumes, 1999-2002). ISBN 978-9069801247.
  192. Ascaso, Francisco J.; Lizana, Joaquín; Cristóbal, José A. (1 March 2009). "Cataract surgery in ancient Egypt". Journal of Cataract & Refractive Surgery. 35 (3): 607–608. doi:10.1016/j.jcrs.2008.11.052. ISSN 0886-3350. PMID 19251160.
  193. 1 2 3 Singh, Vibha (January–June 2017). "Sushruta: The father of surgery". National Journal of Maxillofacial Surgery. 8 (1): 1–3. doi:10.4103/njms.NJMS_33_17. PMC 5512402. PMID 28761269.
  194. Dwivedi, Girish & Dwivedi, Shridhar (2007). History of Medicine: Sushruta – the Clinician – Teacher par Excellence Archived 10 October 2008 at the Wayback Machine. National Informatics Centre (Government of India).
  195. Curtis 2008, p. 375.
  196. Frankel, Rafael (2003): "The Olynthus Mill, Its Origin, and Diffusion: Typology and Distribution", American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 107, No. 1, pp. 1–21 (17–19)
  197. Ritti, Tullia; Grewe, Klaus; Kessener, Paul (2007): "A Relief of a Water-powered Stone Saw Mill on a Sarcophagus at Hierapolis and its Implications", Journal of Roman Archaeology, Vol. 20, pp. 138–163 (159)
  198. "Reserve Bank of India - Publications". In ancient India, loan deed forms called rnapatra or rnalekhya were in use. These contained details such as the name of the debtor and the creditor, the amount of loan, the rate of interest, the condition of repayment and the time of repayment. The deed was witnessed by a person of respectable means and endorsed by the loan-deed writer. Execution of loan deeds continued during the Buddhist period, when they were called inapanna.
  199. Coulton, J. J. (1974): "Lifting in Early Greek Architecture", The Journal of Hellenic Studies, Vol. 94, pp. 1–19 (7, 16)
  200. Elinor Dewire and Dolores Reyes-Pergioudakis (2010). The Lighthouses of Greece. Sarasota: Pineapple Press. ISBN 978-1-56164-452-0, pp 1-5.
  201. Saddles, Author Russel H. Beatie, Publisher University of Oklahoma Press, 1981, ISBN 080611584X, 9780806115849 P.28
  202. White, Lynn Townsend. Medieval Technology and Social Change, Publisher Oxford University Press, 1964, ISBN 0195002660, 9780195002669 P.14
  203. Chamberlin, J. Edward (2007). Horse: How the Horse Has Shaped Civilizations. Moscow: Olma Media Group. ISBN 1-904955-36-3.
  204. 1 2 Singh, Upinder (2016), A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century, Pearson PLC, ISBN 978-81-317-1677-9
  205. 1 2 Jain, Kailash Chand (1991), Lord Mahāvīra and His Times, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-0805-8
  206. 1 2 Wagner (2001), 7, 36–37, 64–68. 335.
  207. Ebrey, Walthall, and Palais (2006), 30.
  208. Pigott (1999), 177.
  209. Beckmann, Martin (2002): "The 'Columnae Coc(h)lides' of Trajan and Marcus Aurelius", Phoenix, Vol. 56, No. 3/4, pp. 348–357 (354)
  210. Ruggeri, Stefania (2006): "Selinunt", Edizioni Affinità Elettive, Messina, ISBN 88-8405-079-0, p. 77
  211. M. J. T. Lewis, "The Origins of the Wheelbarrow", Technology and Culture, Vol. 35, No. 3. (July 1994), pp. 470
  212. Needham, Joseph (1965). Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 2, Mechanical Engineering; rpr. Taipei: Caves Books Ltd., page 265
  213. "What is a camera obscura?". Camera Obscura and World of Illusions Edinburgh. Retrieved 7 January 2022.
  214. "Palette de scribe". Antiquités égyptiennes du Louvre (in French).
  215. 1 2 Joseph F. O'Callaghan; Donald J. Kagay; Theresa M. Vann (1998). On the Social Origins of Medieval Institutions: Essays in Honor of Joseph F. O'Callaghan. BRILL. p. 179. ISBN 978-90-04-11096-0. Developed in China between the fifth and fourth centuries BC, it reached the Mediterranean by the sixth century AD
  216. Bates, W. N. (1902). "Etruscan Horseshoes from Corneto — AJA 6:398‑403". penelope.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 7 January 2022.
  217. Curtis 2008, p. 376.
  218. de Vos 2011, p. 178.
  219. Vikramaditya S. Khanna (2005). The Economic History of the Corporate Form in Ancient India. University of Michigan.
  220. "Reserve Bank of India - Publications". In the Mauryan period, an instrument called adesha was in use, which was an order on a banker desiring him to pay the money of the note to a third person
  221. Roy, Kaushik (2014). Military Transition in Early Modern Asia, 1400-1750. London: Bloomsbury Academic. p. 19. ISBN 978-1-7809-3765-6.
  222. Vergiani, Vincenzo (2017), "Bhartrhari on Language, Perception, and Consciousness", in Ganeri, Jonardon (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Indian Philosophy, Oxford University Press
  223. Craddock et al. 1983. (The earliest evidence for the production of zinc comes from India. Srinivasan, Sharda and Srinivasa Rangnathan. 2004)
  224. Srinivasan, Ranganathan. "Mettalurgical heritage of India". Christian-Albrechts-University of Kiel. Retrieved 4 November 2011.
  225. Rina Shrivastva (1999). "Smelting furnaces in Ancient India" (PDF). Indian Journal of History & Science,34(1), Digital Library of India. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 April 2012. Retrieved 4 November 2011.
  226. Harry Henderson (1 January 2009). Encyclopedia of Computer Science and Technology. Infobase Publishing. p. 13. ISBN 978-1-4381-1003-5. Retrieved 28 May 2013. The earliest known analog computing device is the Antikythera mechanism.
  227. "Archimedes' Screw". Kenyon. Retrieved 11 July 2018.
  228. Moore, Frank Gardner (1950): "Three Canal Projects, Roman and Byzantine", American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 54, No. 2, pp. 97–111 (99–101)
  229. Froriep, Siegfried (1986): "Ein Wasserweg in Bithynien. Bemühungen der Römer, Byzantiner und Osmanen", Antike Welt, 2nd Special Edition, pp. 39–50 (46)
  230. Schörner, Hadwiga (2000): "Künstliche Schiffahrtskanäle in der Antike. Der sogenannte antike Suez-Kanal", Skyllis, Vol. 3, No. 1, pp. 28–43 (33–35, 39)
  231. Wilson, Andrew (2002): "Machines, Power and the Ancient Economy", The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 92, pp. 1–32 (16) JSTOR 3184857
  232. Selin, Helaine (2013). Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Westen Cultures. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 282. ISBN 9789401714167.
  233. Oleson, John Peter (2000): "Water-Lifting", in: Wikander, Örjan: "Handbook of Ancient Water Technology", Technology and Change in History, Vol. 2, Brill, Leiden, ISBN 90-04-11123-9, pp. 217–302 (233)
  234. Carter, Ernest Frank (1967). Dictionary of Inventions and Discoveries. Philosophical Library. p. 74.
  235. Oleson, John Peter (1984), Greek and Roman Mechanical Water-Lifting Devices: The History of a Technology, University of Toronto Press, p. 33, ISBN 90-277-1693-5
  236. Pigott (1999), 183–184.
  237. Casson, Lionel (1995): "Ships and Seamanship in the Ancient World", Johns Hopkins University Press, ISBN 978-0-8018-5130-8, pp. 243–245
  238. Buisseret (1998), 12.
  239. Guarnieri, M (2014). "Once Upon a Time, the Compass". IEEE Industrial Electronics Magazine.
  240. O'Connor, Colin: Roman Bridges, Cambridge University Press, 1993, ISBN 0-521-39326-4, p. 171
  241. Galliazzo, Vittorio (1995): "I ponti romani", Vol. 1, Edizioni Canova, Treviso, ISBN 88-85066-66-6, pp. 429–437
  242. One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Acta Diurna". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 1 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 159.
  243. "Newspaper - MSN Encarta". Archived from the original on 6 December 2008. Retrieved 17 December 2008.
  244. Irving Fang, A History of Mass Communication: Six Information Revolutions, Focal Press, 1997, p. 30
  245. Lamont, Ian, "The Rise of the Press in Late Imperial China", 27 November 2007
  246. Smith, Norman (1971): "A History of Dams", Peter Davies, London, ISBN 978-0-432-15090-0, pp. 25–49 (33–35)
  247. Schnitter, Niklaus (1978): "Römische Talsperren", Antike Welt, Vol. 8, No. 2, pp. 25–32 (31f.)
  248. Schnitter, Niklaus (1987): "Verzeichnis geschichtlicher Talsperren bis Ende des 17. Jahrhunderts", in: Garbrecht, Günther (ed.): Historische Talsperren, Verlag Konrad Wittwer, Stuttgart, Vol. 1, ISBN 3-87919-145-X, pp. 9–20 (12)
  249. Schnitter, Niklaus (1987): "Die Entwicklungsgeschichte der Bogenstaumauer", Garbrecht, Günther (ed.): Historische Talsperren, Vol. 1, Verlag Konrad Wittwer, Stuttgart, ISBN 3-87919-145-X, pp. 75–96 (80)
  250. Hodge, A. Trevor (2000): "Reservoirs and Dams", in: Wikander, Örjan: Handbook of Ancient Water Technology, Technology and Change in History, Vol. 2, Brill, Leiden, ISBN 90-04-11123-9, pp. 331–339 (332, fn. 2)
  251. Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 184.
  252. Avigad, N (1983). Discovering Jerusalem. Nashville. ISBN 0-8407-5299-7
  253. Tatton-Brown, V. (1991). "The Roman Empire". In H. Tait (ed.) Five Thousand Years of Glass. pp. 62–97. British Museum Press: London ISBN 0-8122-1888-4
  254. Birgit Schlick-Nolte; E. Marianne (1994). Early glass of the ancient world: 1600 B.C.-A.D. 50 : Ernesto Wolf collection. Verlag Gerd Hatje. pp. 81–83. ISBN 978-3-7757-0502-8.
  255. Davies, Oliver: Roman Mines in Europe, Oxford (1935)
  256. Lu, Houyuan; Yang, Xiaoyan; Ye, Maolin (13 October 2005). "Culinary archaeology: Millet noodles in Late Neolithic China". Nature. 437 (7061): 967–968. Bibcode:2005Natur.437..967L. doi:10.1038/437967a. PMID 16222289. S2CID 4385122.
  257. "turbine". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. Retrieved 18 July 2007.
  258. J. R. Edwards (4 December 2013). A History of Financial Accounting (RLE Accounting). Routledge. p. 46. ISBN 978-1-134-67881-5.
  259. Sleeswyk AW, Sivin N (1983). "Dragons and toads: the Chinese seismoscope of BC. 132". Chinese Science. 6: 1–19.
  260. Needham, Joseph (1959). Science and Civilization in China, Volume 3: Mathematics and the Sciences of the Heavens and the Earth. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 626–635. Bibcode:1959scc3.book.....N.
  261. Baber (1996), page 57
  262. Ritti, Tullia; Grewe, Klaus; Kessener, Paul (2007): "A Relief of a Water-powered Stone Saw Mill on a Sarcophagus at Hierapolis and its Implications", Journal of Roman Archaeology, Vol. 20, pp. 138–163 (140, 161)
  263. Grewe, Klaus (2009): "Die Reliefdarstellung einer antiken Steinsägemaschine aus Hierapolis in Phrygien und ihre Bedeutung für die Technikgeschichte. Internationale Konferenz 13.−16. Juni 2007 in Istanbul" Archived 11 May 2011 at the Wayback Machine, in: Bachmann, Martin (ed.): Bautechnik im antiken und vorantiken Kleinasien, Byzas, Vol. 9, Ege Yayınları/Zero Prod. Ltd., Istanbul, ISBN 978-975-8072-23-1, pp. 429–454 (429)
  264. Grewe, Klaus (2010): "La máquina romana de serrar piedras. La representación en bajorrelieve de una sierra de piedras de la antigüedad, en Hierápolis de Frigia y su relevancia para la historia técnica (translation by Miguel Ordóñez)", in: Las técnicas y las construcciones de la Ingeniería Romana, V Congreso de las Obras Públicas Romanas, pp. 381–401
  265. Shaffer, Lynda N., "Southernization", Agricultural and Pastoral Societies in Ancient and Classical History edited by Michael Adas, pp. 311, Temple University Press, ISBN 1-56639-832-0.
  266. Hsü, Immanuel C. Y. (1970). The Rise of Modern China. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 830. ISBN 0-19-501240-2.
  267. Wilson, Andrew (1995): "Water-Power in North Africa and the Development of the Horizontal Water-Wheel", Journal of Roman Archaeology, Vol. 8, pp. 499–510 (507f.)
  268. Wikander, Örjan (2000): "The Water-Mill" in: Wikander, Örjan (ed.): Handbook of Ancient Water Technology, Technology and Change in History, Vol. 2, Brill, Leiden, ISBN 90-04-11123-9, pp. 371–400 (377)
  269. Donners, K.; Waelkens, M.; Deckers, J. (2002): "Water Mills in the Area of Sagalassos: A Disappearing Ancient Technology", Anatolian Studies, Vol. 52, pp. 1–17 (13)
  270. Leibs, Andrew (2004). Sports and Games of the Renaissance. Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-313-32772-8.
  271. Estes, Rebecca; Robinson, Dindy (1996). World Cultures Through Art Activities. Englewood, CO: Teachers Ideas Press. ISBN 978-1-56308-271-9.
  272. "Hindi and the origins of chess". chessbase.com. 5 March 2014. Archived from the original on 8 March 2014.
  273. Helaine Selin, ed. (2008). Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures. Springer. p. 197. ISBN 978-1-4020-4559-2.
  274. The American Journal of Science. 1919. Retrieved 30 June 2009.
  275. Needham, Joseph. (1986d). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 3, Civil Engineering and Nautics. Taipei: Caves Books Ltd. ISBN 0-521-07060-0, 187–189.
  276. Peters, Tom F. (1987). Transitions in Engineering: Guillaume Henri Dufour and the Early 19th Century Cable Suspension Bridges. Birkhauser. ISBN 3-7643-1929-1.
  277. "suspension bridge" in Encyclopædia Britannica (2008). 2008 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
  278. Hucker (1975), 206.
  279. Ronan (1994), 41.
  280. "ASTM International – Standards Worldwide". www.astm.org. Archived from the original on 6 July 2017. Retrieved 26 March 2018.
  281. De Rebus Bellicis (anon.), chapter XVII, text edited by Robert Ireland, in: BAR International Series 63, part 2, p. 34
  282. On the Corrosion Resistance of the Delhi Iron Pillar, R. Balasubramaniam, Corrosion Science, Volume 42 (2000) pp. 2103–2129. Corrosion Science is a publication specialized in corrosion science and engineering.
  283. Yoshio Waseda; Shigeru Suzuki (2006). Characterization of corrosion products on steel surfaces. Springer. p. vii. ISBN 978-3-540-35177-1.
  284. Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 28.
  285. Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 322.
  286. Galliazzo, Vittorio (1995): "I ponti romani", Vol. 1, Edizioni Canova, Treviso, ISBN 88-85066-66-6, p. 92
  287. Warren, John (1991): "Creswell's Use of the Theory of Dating by the Acuteness of the Pointed Arches in Early Muslim Architecture", Muqarnas, Vol. 8, pp. 59–65 (61–63)
  288. Schafer (1963), pages 160-161
  289. Bedini (1994), pages 69-80
  290. Smith, C. Wayne; Cothren, J. Tom (1999). Cotton: Origin, History, Technology, and Production. Vol. 4. John Wiley & Sons. pp. viii. ISBN 978-0471180456. The first improvement in spinning technology was the spinning wheel, which was invented in India between 500 and 1000 A.D.
  291. Heinle, Erwin; Schlaich, Jörg (1996): "Kuppeln aller Zeiten, aller Kulturen", Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, Stuttgart, ISBN 3-421-03062-6, pp. 30–32
  292. Needham, Volume 5, Part 1, 123.
  293. Hunter (1978), 207.
  294. Kumar, Jayanth V. (2011). "Oral hygiene aids". Textbook of preventive and community dentistry (2nd ed.). Elsevier. pp. 412–413. ISBN 978-81-312-2530-1.
  295. Pryor & Jeffreys 2006, pp. 607–609
  296. Theophanes & Turtledove 1982, p. 52
  297. Roland 1992, p. 657; Pryor & Jeffreys 2006, p. 608
  298. Ebrey, Walthall, and Palais (2006), 156.
  299. Bowman (2000), 105.
  300. Gernet (1962), 80.
  301. Wood (1999), 49.
  302. Jack Kelly Gunpowder: Alchemy, Bombards, and Pyrotechnics: The History of the Explosive that Changed the World, Perseus Books Group: 2005, ISBN 0465037224, 9780465037223: pp. 2-5
  303. Needham, Volume 5, Part 7, 8–9, 80–82.
  304. Needham (1987), Volume 5, Part 7, 70–73, 120–124.
  305. Gernet (1996), 311.
  306. Day & McNeil (1996), 785.
  307. Needham 1954, pp. 131–132.
  308. Wilkinson, W.H. (1895). "Chinese Origin of Playing Cards". American Anthropologist. VIII (1): 61–78. doi:10.1525/aa.1895.8.1.02a00070.
  309. Lo, A. (2009). "The game of leaves: An inquiry into the origin of Chinese playing cards". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies. 63 (3): 389–406. doi:10.1017/S0041977X00008466. S2CID 159872810.
  310. Needham 2004, p. 328 "it is also now rather well-established that dominoes and playing-cards were originally Chinese developments from dice."
  311. Needham 2004, p. 332 "Numbered dice, anciently widespread, were on a related line of development which gave rise to dominoes and playing-cards (+9th-century China)."
  312. "9 World Changing Inventions from the Middle East". thaqafamagazine.com. 5 December 2014. Retrieved 26 March 2018.
  313. Needham (1986), Volume 5, Part 7, 224–225, 232–233, 241–244.
  314. Helaine Selin (1 January 1997). Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures. Springer. p. 389. ISBN 978-0-7923-4066-9. Retrieved 30 July 2013.
  315. Crosby, Alfred W. (2002), Throwing Fire: Projectile Technology Through History, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-79158-8
  316. Gernet (1962), 186.
  317. Bosworth, C. E. (1981). "A Mediaeval Islamic Prototype of the Fountain Pen?". Journal of Semitic Studies. 26 (1): 229–234. doi:10.1093/jss/26.2.229. ...not more than a few days passed before the craftsman, to whom the construction of this contrivance had been described, brought in the pen, fashioned from gold. He then filled it with ink and wrote with it, and it really did write. The pen released a little more ink than was necessary. Hence al-Mu'izz ordered that it should be adjusted slightly, and he did this. He brought forward the pen and behold, it turned out to be a pen which can be turned upside down in the hand and tipped from side to side, and no trace of ink appears from it. When a secretary takes up the pen and writes with it, he is able to write in the most elegant script that could possibly be desired; then, when he lifts the pen off the sheet of writing material, it holds in the ink. I observed that it was a wonderful piece of work, the like of which I had never imagined I would ever see.
  318. Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 111.
  319. Needham, Volume 5, Part 1, 201–202.
  320. Gernet (1996), 335.
  321. Bowman (2000), 599.
  322. Day & McNeil (1996), 70.
  323. Munir, Hassam (5 February 2016). "Have You Ever Heard of the Elephant Clock of Al-Jazari, the Pioneer of Engineering?". MVSLIM. Retrieved 11 April 2023.
  324. "A Brief History of Rocketry". Solarviews.com. Retrieved 14 June 2012.
  325. Whitrow, G. J. (26 March 1989). Time in History: Views of Time from Prehistory to the Present Day. Oxford University Press. p. 104. ISBN 9780192852113. Retrieved 26 March 2018 via Internet Archive.
  326. Lynn White: "The Act of Invention: Causes, Contexts, Continuities and Consequences", Technology and Culture, Vol. 3, No. 4 (Autumn, 1962), pp. 486–500 (497f. & 500)
  327. Peter Connolly (1 November 1998). The Hutchinson Dictionary of Ancient and Medieval Warfare. Taylor & Francis. pp. 356. ISBN 978-1-57958-116-9.
  328. Needham (1986), Volume 5, Part 7, 170–174.
  329. Needham (1986), Volume 5, Part 7, 171.
  330. Needham (1986), Volume 5, Part 7, 293–294.
  331. Habib, Irfan (2011). Economic History of Medieval India, 1200-1500. Pearson Education. p. 54. ISBN 978-81-317-2791-1.
  332. Needham (1986), Volume 5, Part 7, 175–176, 192.
  333. Vincent Ilardi, Renaissance Vision from Spectacles to Telescopes (Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: American Philosophical Society, 2007), page 5.
  334. Gwei-Djen, Lu; Joseph Needham; Phan Chi-Hsing (July 1988). "The Oldest Representation of a Bombard". Technology and Culture. Johns Hopkins University Press. 29 (3): 594–605. doi:10.2307/3105275. JSTOR 3105275. S2CID 112733319.
  335. Needham (1986), Volume 5, Part 7, 203–205.
  336. "Proving their mettle in metal craft". The Times of India. 2 January 2012. Archived from the original on 8 May 2013. Retrieved 2 January 2012.
  337. See People of the Millennium for an overview of the wide acclaim. In 1999, the A&E Network ranked Gutenberg no. 1 on their "People of the Millennium" countdown. In 1997, Time–Life magazine picked Gutenberg's invention as the most important of the second millennium Archived 10 March 2010 at the Wayback Machine; the same did four prominent US journalists in their 1998 resume 1,000 Years, 1,000 People: Ranking The Men and Women Who Shaped The Millennium. The Johann Gutenberg entry of the Catholic Encyclopedia describes his invention as having made a practically unparalleled cultural impact in the Christian era.
  338. 1 2 White, Lynn Jr. (1966). Medieval Technology and Social Change. New York: Oxford Univ. Press. ISBN 0-19-500266-0., p.126-127
  339. White, Lynn (1962): "Medieval Technology and Social Change", At the Clarendon Press, Oxford, p. 112
  340. Meggs, Philip B. A History of Graphic Design. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 1998. (pp 58–69) ISBN 0-471-29198-6
  341. Penny Cyclopaedia of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge. Vol. 1. C. Knight. 1833. pp. 373–374. Retrieved 5 January 2016.
  342. "harquebus weapon". Britannica.com. Retrieved 5 January 2016.
  343. Stimson, Alan (1985): "The Mariner's Astrolabe. A Survey of 48 Surviving Examples", UC Biblioteca Geral, Coimbra, p. 576
  344. Noble, Allen G. (2019). India: Cultural Patterns And Processes. Routledge. p. 1. ISBN 9780429724633. JSTOR 44148394.
  345. Razpush, Shahnaz (15 December 2000). "ḠALYĀN". Encyclopedia Iranica. pp. 261–265. Retrieved 19 December 2012.
  346. Sivaramakrishnan, V. M. (2001). Tobacco and Areca Nut. Hyderabad: Orient Blackswan. pp. 4–5. ISBN 81-250-2013-6.
  347. Sarton, George (1946): "Floating Docks in the Sixteenth Century", Isis, Vol. 36, No. 3/4, pp. 153–154 (153f.)
  348. "William Lee English inventor". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 13 June 2017.
  349. Savage-Smith, Emilie (1985), Islamicate Celestial Globes: Their History, Construction, and Use, Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC
  350. "Celestial globe". National Museums Scotland. Archived from the original on 14 June 2020. Retrieved 15 October 2020.
  351. 1 2 World Association of Newspapers: "Newspapers: 400 Years Young!" Archived 10 March 2010 at the Wayback Machine
  352. 1 2 Weber, Johannes (2006): "Strassburg, 1605: The Origins of the Newspaper in Europe", German History, Vol. 24, No. 3, pp. 387–412 (396f.)
  353. David Macaulay, The Way Things Work Now, Houghton Mifflin Harcourt – 2016, page 383
  354. Michelle Selinger, Teaching Mathematics (1994), p. 142.
  355. "The Galileo Project". Galileo.rice.edu. Retrieved 31 October 2012.
  356. "A Brief History of the Calculator I Oxford Open Learning". www.ool.co.uk. Retrieved 12 April 2023.
  357. "The Invention of the Barometer". Islandnet.com. Retrieved 4 February 2010.
  358. da C. Andrade, E. N. (1 March 1959). "The history of the vacuum pump". Vacuum. 9 (1): 41–47. doi:10.1016/0042-207X(59)90555-X. ISSN 0042-207X.
  359. "The invention of the pendulum clock | THE SEIKO MUSEUM GINZA". THE SEIKO MUSEUM. Retrieved 12 April 2023.
  360. Hall, A. Rupert (Alfred Rupert) (1996). Isaac Newton, adventurer in thought. Internet Archive. Cambridge; New York, NY : Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-56669-8.
  361. Hindle, Brooke; Lubar, Steven (1988). "Engines of Change: The American Industrial Revolution, 1790-1860". Labour / Le Travail. 22: 378. doi:10.2307/25143112. ISSN 0700-3862. JSTOR 25143112.
  362. Thurston, pp 25
  363. "Savery and his Fire Engine", A Short History of the Steam Engine, Cambridge University Press, pp. 18–28, 17 February 2011, doi:10.1017/cbo9780511708169.003, ISBN 9781108012287, retrieved 11 April 2023
  364. McNeil, Ian (1990). An Encyclopedia of the History of Technology. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-14792-1.
  365. Lord, John (1903). Memoir of John Kay, of Bury: Inventory of the Fly-Shuttle. Rochdale: J. Clegg.
  366. Pollak, Michael (24 April 2015). "The History of Roller Skates". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 11 April 2023.
  367. Narasimha, Roddam (27 July 2011). "Rockets in Mysore and Britain, 1750–1850 A.D." (PDF). National Aeronautical Laboratory and Indian Institute of Science. Archived from the original on 27 July 2011.
  368. Meggs, Philip B. A History of Graphic Design. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 1998. p 146 ISBN 0-471-29198-6
  369. "The Arc Lamp". Archived from the original on 7 February 2011. Retrieved 29 April 2011.
  370. Andreas Luch (2009). Molecular, clinical and environmental toxicology. Springer. p. 20. ISBN 978-3-7643-8335-0.
  371. "Programming patterns: the story of the Jacquard loom". Science and Industry Museum. Retrieved 12 April 2023.
  372. "Richard Trevithick's steam locomotive | Rhagor". Archived from the original on 15 April 2011. Retrieved 3 November 2009.
  373. Izuo, M (2004). "Medical history: Seishu Hanaoka and his success in breast cancer surgery under general anesthesia two hundred years ago". Breast Cancer. Tokyo, Japan. 11 (4): 319–324. doi:10.1007/bf02968037. PMID 15604985. S2CID 43428862.
  374. "First wristwatch | Breguet". www.breguet.com. Retrieved 14 June 2021.
  375. "1816-1882: Early Stethoscope". EMS Museum. Retrieved 11 April 2023.
  376. R. Sier (1999)
  377. Thomson, Ross (2009). Structures of Change in the Mechanical Age: Technological Invention in the United States 1790-1865. Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-9141-0.
  378. Hounshell 1984, p. 35
  379. Halacy, Daniel Stephen (1970). Charles Babbage, Father of the Computer. Crowell-Collier Press. ISBN 0-02-741370-5.
  380. Flatnes, Oyvind. From Musket to Metallic Cartridge: A Practical History of Black Powder Firearms. Crowood Press, 2013, pp. 125–130. ISBN 978-1847975935
  381. "John Walker's Friction Light". BBC. Retrieved 25 August 2011.
  382. "What Is Braille?". The American Foundation for the Blind. Retrieved 11 April 2023.
  383. Thomas, Robert M. (1 September 1969). "Early History of Butyl Rubber. Charles Goodyear Medal Address—1969". Rubber Chemistry and Technology. 42 (4): G90–G96. doi:10.5254/1.3539292. ISSN 1943-4804.
  384. Daniel, Authors: Malcolm. "Daguerre (1787–1851) and the Invention of Photography | Essay | The Metropolitan Museum of Art | Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History". The Met’s Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. Retrieved 11 April 2023.
  385. DCC, Blueprint (5 April 2013). "Blueprint data release - April 2013". doi:10.6019/blueprint_20130405.
  386. Steven Roberts. "Distant Writing – Bain".
  387. "Walter Hunt | Lemelson". lemelson.mit.edu. Retrieved 11 April 2023.
  388. "Model of Jenning's patent water closet | Science Museum Group Collection". collection.sciencemuseumgroup.org.uk. Retrieved 12 March 2022.
  389. Goodwin, Jason OTIS GIVING RISE TO THE MODERN CITY, Chicago, 2001: Ivan R. Dee, Publisher, pp. 5-21
  390. "An Act to render valid a Patent heretofore granted to James Harrison for Manufacturing Ice" (PDF). Flinders University, Adelaide.
  391. Deng, Yuliang. "CARBON FIBER ELECTRONIC INTERCONNECTS".
  392. M. Cobb, Harold (2010). "Chapter 2: The Early Discoveries". The History of Stainless Steel (illustrated ed.). ASM International. p. 11. ISBN 978-1615030118. Retrieved 23 February 2017.
  393. Charles R. Geisst (1 January 2009). Encyclopedia of American Business History. Infobase Publishing. p. 425. ISBN 978-1-4381-0987-9.
  394. "The History of the Edison Cylinder Phonograph". Library of Congress.
  395. Quick, D. (1970). "A History Of Closed Circuit Oxygen Underwater Breathing Apparatus". Royal Australian Navy, School of Underwater Medicine. RANSUM-1-70. Archived from the original on 9 May 2008. Retrieved 25 August 2011.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  396. Friedel, Robert, and Paul Israel. 1986. Edison's electric light: biography of an invention. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press. pages 115–117
  397. Kenneth E. Hendrickson III, The Encyclopedia of the Industrial Revolution in World History, Volume 3, Rowman & Littlefield – 2014, page 564
  398. Maury Klein, The Power Makers: Steam, Electricity, and the Men Who Invented Modern America, Bloomsbury Publishing USA – 2010, Chapter 9 – The Cowbird, The Plugger, and the Dreamer
  399. David O. Whitten, Bessie Emrick Whitten, Handbook of American Business History: Manufacturing, Greenwood Publishing Group, 1990, pages 315-316
  400. "Beginnings of submerged arc welding" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2016.
  401. "Bicycle Association leads birthday celebrations for JK Starley, creator of the Safety bicycle". bicycleassociation.org. Bicycle Association. Archived from the original on 4 January 2015. Retrieved 4 January 2015.
  402. The Britannica Guide to Inventions That Changed the Modern World. Britannica Educational Publishing. p. 124. ISBN 978-1-61530-064-8.
  403. DRP's patent No. 37435 Archived 4 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine (PDF, 561 kB, German)
  404. Great Britain Patent No. 15630, 30 October 2008
  405. "Today in History - August 31". Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA. Retrieved 11 April 2023.
  406. Sneader W (2005). "Chapter 8: Systematic medicine". Drug discovery: a history. Chichester, England: John Wiley and Sons. pp. 74–87. ISBN 978-0-471-89980-8. Retrieved 13 September 2010.
  407. Cartons, Crates and Corrugated Board: Handbook of Paper and Wood Packaging. by Diana Tweede and Susan E M Selke, DESTech Publications, 2005, p.24
  408. "Patent 39916 Summary". Government of Canada. Archived from the original on 28 February 2022. Retrieved 28 February 2022.
  409. von Pechmann, H. (1898). "Ueber Diazomethan und Nitrosoacylamine". Berichte der Deutschen Chemischen Gesellschaft zu Berlin. 31 (3): 2640–2646. doi:10.1002/cber.18980310314. page 643: Erwähnt sei noch, dass aus einer ätherischen Diazomethanlösung sich beim Stehen manchmal minimale Quantitäten eines weissen, flockigen, aus Chloroform krystallisirenden Körpers abscheiden; ... (It should be mentioned that from an ether solution of diazomethane, upon standing, sometimes small quantities of a white, flakey substance, which can be crystallized from chloroform, precipitate; ... )
  410. Gantz, Carroll (21 September 2012). The Vacuum Cleaner: A History. McFarland. p. 49
  411. 1 2 Peter O. K. Krehl (24 Sep 2008) History of Shock Waves, Explosions and Impact: A Chronological and Biographical Reference, p.443, Springer Science & Business Media, ISBN 3540304215, ISBN 9783540304210, accessed 7 July 2019
  412. Personnage Larousse, accessed 7 July 2019
  413. Anthony Roux (2 July 2009) Simulation aux Grandes Echelles d'un statoréacteur, p.15, University of Toulouse, "...La propulsion par statoreacteur a été inventée par le francais René Lorin en 1907 et decrite pour la ´ premiere fois dans la revue ` l'aerophile ´ dans un article intitule "Propulseur par reaction directe"...", accessed 7 July 2019
  414. Lorin, René (1877–1933), Digital Mechanism and Gear Library, first contact for: "1913 – Lorin" (Margaret Connor) obtained via search criteria (google): "discovery of scramjet Frank Whittle", accessed 7 July 2019
  415. R. Lorin (15 May 1913) – de la turbine a gaz au propulseur a reaction, pp.229–230, L'Aérophile; BnF Gallica, accessed 7 July 2019
  416. Michael G. Smith (1 December 2014) — Rockets and Revolution: A Cultural History of Early Spaceflight, 7th page of Chapter 3, University of Nebraska Press, ISBN 0803286546, ISBN 9780803286542, accessed 7 July 2019
  417. "A non-rusting steel". The New York Times. 31 January 1915.
  418. "TractorData.com - Three-Point Hitch". www.tractordata.com. Retrieved 28 February 2022.
  419. "The "Televisor" Successful Test of New Apparatus", The Times (London), Thursday 28 January 1926, p. 9 column C.
  420. "Who invented the television? How people reacted to John Logie Baird's creation 90 years ago". The Telegraph. 26 January 2016. Archived from the original on 26 January 2016.
  421. "Who invented the mechanical television? (John Logie Baird)". Google. 26 January 2016.
  422. Marrison, Warren (1948). "The Evolution of the Quartz Crystal Clock". Bell System Technical Journal. AT&T. 27 (3): 510–588. doi:10.1002/j.1538-7305.1948.tb01343.x. Archived from the original on 13 May 2007.
  423. "History – Frank Whittle (1907–1996)". BBC. Retrieved 26 March 2010.
  424. "Espacenet - Original document". worldwide.espacenet.com.
  425. Current affairs, science and technology notes ClearIAS accessed 7 July 2019
  426. "Scramjet Engine: Why in News Headlines Now?". 1 February 2017.
  427. "Wallace Hume Carothers". Science History Institute. June 2016. Retrieved 20 March 2018.
  428. 1 2 The Technology of Nuclear Weapons, Arms Control Association, accessed 9 January 2020
  429. 1 2 Plutonium 239 Archived 18 January 2020 at the Wayback Machine, EDP-Sciences (EDITIONS DE PHYSIQUE) (& the Institut National de Physique Nucléaire et Physique des Particules (IN2P3) accessed 9 January 2020
  430. Plutonium, published by the Atomic Heritage Foundation & the National Museum of Nuclear Science & History (of the United States) 5 June 2014 – accessed 2020-1-9, re-accessed due to an error in application during 9, 10 January 2020
  431. "Spontaneous fission (SF) was discovered by Flerov and Petrzhak in 1940, following the discovery of neutron induced fission by Hahn and Strassmann in 1938" in: Magill J. (2003) Fission Products and Yields ϒ. In: Nuclides.net. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg Fission Products and Yields ϒ, DOI https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-55764-4_8, Print ISBN 978-3-642-62817-7, Online ISBN 978-3-642-55764-4, eBook Packages Springer Book Archive – accessed 10 January 2020 (this source represents a re-application of sourcing due to an error in application of sourcing to the inclusion "spontaneous" during the 1st inclusion made 2020-1-9)
  432. Segre, EmilioSpontaneous Fission p.13 "From this we deduce a spontaneous fission decay constant of 2.1 x l03 fissions per gram per second". published Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, University of California, 22 November 1950 (this source represents a re-application of sourcing due to an error in application of sourcing to the inclusion " fission" (+) "decay" during the 1st inclusion made 2020-1-9)
  433. "The Magnetron". histru.bournemouth.ac.uk. Retrieved 28 February 2022.
  434. Bellis, Mary. "The History of Polyester". About.com. Retrieved 23 February 2017.
  435. Bookchin, Debbie and Schumacher, Jim. The Virus and the Vaccine. MacMillan 2005
  436. "Espacenet - Bibliographic data". worldwide.espacenet.com. Retrieved 28 February 2022.
  437. King, George E (2012), Hydraulic fracturing 101 (PDF), Society of Petroleum Engineers, Paper 152596
  438. Smil, pp. 97-98.
  439. R.G. Sharma (26 February 2015) Superconductivity: Basics and Applications to Magnets, p.311 Springer Science+Business Media, ISBN 3319137131, ISBN 9783319137131, illustrated, Retrieved 27 June 2019
  440. "The Float Process". pilkington.com. Plinkington. Archived from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 23 February 2017.
  441. "IBM 350 disk storage unit". IBM. 23 January 2003. Retrieved 25 February 2017.
  442. Kumar, Aran (2014). "Optical amplifier: A key element of high speed optical network". 2014 International Conference on Issues and Challenges in Intelligent Computing Techniques (ICICT). IEEE. pp. 450–452. doi:10.1109/ICICICT.2014.6781324. ISBN 978-1-4799-2900-9. S2CID 32667559.
  443. "1960: Metal Oxide Semiconductor (MOS) Transistor Demonstrated | the Silicon Engine | Computer History Museum".
  444. "Who Invented the Transistor?". 4 December 2013.
  445. "13 Sextillion & Counting: The Long & Winding Road to the Most Frequently Manufactured Human Artifact in History". 2 April 2018.
  446. Abbate, Jane (2000). Inventing the Internet. MIT Press. p. 38. ISBN 978-0262261333.
  447. Hempstead, C.; Worthington, W., eds. (8 August 2005). Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Technology. Routledge. ISBN 9781135455514. Retrieved 15 August 2015. Elements of the pilot NPL network first operated in 1969
  448. Roberts, Dr. Lawrence G. (November 1978). "The Evolution of Packet Switching" (PDF). IEEE Invited Paper. Archived from the original (PDF) on 31 December 2018. Retrieved 10 September 2017. In nearly all respects, Davies' original proposal, developed in late 1965, was similar to the actual networks being built today.
  449. "Donald Davies | Internet Hall of Fame". www.internethalloffame.org. Retrieved 20 April 2022. the ARPANET received his network design enthusiastically and the NPL local network became the first two computer networks in the world using the technique.
  450. "The real story of how the Internet became so vulnerable". Washington Post. Archived from the original on 30 May 2015. Retrieved 18 February 2020. Historians credit seminal insights to Welsh scientist Donald W. Davies and American engineer Paul Baran
  451. "1971: Microprocessor Integrates CPU Function onto a Single Chip | the Silicon Engine | Computer History Museum".
  452. "The World's Technological Capacity to Store, Communicate, and Compute Information", Martin Hilbert and Priscila López (2011), Science, 332(6025), 60-65; free access to the article through here martinhilbert.net/WorldInfoCapacity.html
  453. Nick Taylor. Laser: The Inventor, the Nobel Laureate, and the Thirty-Year Patent War. Simon & Schuster. 2000
  454. Cerf, V.; Kahn, R. (1974). "A Protocol for Packet Network Intercommunication" (PDF). IEEE Transactions on Communications. 22 (5): 637–648. doi:10.1109/TCOM.1974.1092259. ISSN 1558-0857. The authors wish to thank a number of colleagues for helpful comments during early discussions of international network protocols, especially R. Metcalfe, R. Scantlebury, D. Walden, and H. Zimmerman; D. Davies and L. Pouzin who constructively commented on the fragmentation and accounting issues; and S. Crocker who commented on the creation and destruction of associations.
  455. "The internet's fifth man". The Economist. 30 November 2013. ISSN 0013-0613. Retrieved 22 April 2020. In the early 1970s Mr Pouzin created an innovative data network that linked locations in France, Italy and Britain. Its simplicity and efficiency pointed the way to a network that could connect not just dozens of machines, but millions of them. It captured the imagination of Dr Cerf and Dr Kahn, who included aspects of its design in the protocols that now power the internet.
  456. "IEEE Medal for Environmental and Safety Technologies Recipients". Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE).
  457. Gilbert, Walter; Maxam, Allan (February 1977). "A new method for sequencing DNA". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 74 (2): 560–566. Bibcode:1977PNAS...74..560M. doi:10.1073/pnas.74.2.560. PMC 392330. PMID 265521.
  458. "The VaMoRs Was the World's First Real-Deal Autonomous Car | Web2Carz". Web2Carz.com. 28 February 2017.
  459. Tweney, Dylan. "Sept. 24, 1979: First Online Service for Consumers Debuts". Wired. ISSN 1059-1028. Retrieved 26 February 2022.
  460. "BBC - A History of the World - Object : Prestel badge". BBC. Retrieved 26 February 2022.
  461. 4667088, Kramer, Kane N. & Campbell, James S., "Portable data processing and storage system", issued 1987-05-19
  462. EP 689208 "Method for block oriented addressing" – for block layouts see columns 1 and 2
  463. "SatMagazine". www.satmagazine.com. Retrieved 26 February 2022.
  464. "Shinshu Seiki/Suwa Seikosha HC-20". IPSJ Computer Museum. Retrieved 19 June 2019.
  465. "Our Story". 3D Systems. 12 January 2017. Retrieved 12 July 2018.
  466. Zagorski, Nick (13 June 2006). "Profile of Alec J. Jeffreys". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 103 (24): 8918–8920. Bibcode:2006PNAS..103.8918Z. doi:10.1073/pnas.0603953103. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 1482540. PMID 16754883.
  467. "Eureka moment that led to the discovery of DNA fingerprinting". The Guardian. 24 May 2009. Archived from the original on 26 April 2021. Retrieved 11 April 2022.
  468. "On the 20th Birthday of the MP3, An Interview With The "Father" of the MP3, Karlheinz Brandenburg". Internet History Podcast. Retrieved 26 February 2022.
  469. "Tim Berners Lee – Time 100 People of the Century". Time Magazine. Archived from the original on 3 February 2011. Retrieved 17 May 2010. He wove the World Wide Web and created a mass medium for the 21st century. The World Wide Web is Berners-Lee's alone. He designed it. He loosed it on the world. And he more than anyone else has fought to keep it open, nonproprietary and free.
  470. Berners-Lee, Tim. "Pre-W3C Web and Internet Background". World Wide Web Consortium. Retrieved 21 April 2009.
  471. "1991: Solid State Drive module demonstrated | The Storage Engine | Computer History Museum". www.computerhistory.org.
  472. Markoff, John (3 March 1997). "Fiber-Optic Technology Draws Record Stock Value". The New York Times.
  473. "Podcast". Cambridge Dictionary (Online ed.). Retrieved 21 April 2022.
  474. "Definition of PODCAST". 21 November 2023.
  475. "Podcast Definition & Meaning | Britannica Dictionary". britannica.com.
  476. Inside the secret lab where Amazon is designing the future of reading Archived September 22, 2017, at the Wayback Machine The Verge, 2014
  477. Narayanan, Arvind; Bonneau, Joseph; Felten, Edward; Miller, Andrew; Goldfeder, Steven (2016). Bitcoin and cryptocurrency technologies: a comprehensive introduction. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-17169-2.
  478. Edwards, Lin; Phys.org. "IKAROS unfurls first ever solar sail in space". phys.org. Retrieved 30 December 2022.
  479. Cho, Adrian (2010). "BREAKTHROUGH OF THE YEAR. The First Quantum Machine". Science. 330 (6011): 1604. Bibcode:2010Sci...330.1604C. doi:10.1126/science.330.6011.1604. PMID 21163978.
  480. Cohen, Jon (2011). "Breakthrough of the Year: HIV Treatment as Prevention". Science. 334 (6063): 1628. Bibcode:2011Sci...334.1628C. doi:10.1126/science.334.6063.1628. PMID 22194547.
  481. "Breakthrough of the Year, 2012". Science.
  482. Couzin-Franken, Jenifer (20 December 2013). "Cancer Immunotherapy". Science. 342 (6165): 1432–1433. doi:10.1126/science.342.6165.1432. PMID 24357284. Archived from the original on 22 December 2013. Retrieved 22 December 2013.
  483. Cascone, Sarah (7 May 2021). "Sotheby's Is Selling the First NFT Ever Minted – and Bidding Starts at $100". Artnet News. Retrieved 12 November 2021.
  484. Ostroff, Caitlin (8 May 2021). "The NFT Origin Story, Starring Digital Cats". The Wall Street Journal. ISSN 0099-9660. Retrieved 12 December 2021.
  485. Travis, John (18 December 2015). "Making the cut". Science Magazine. 350 (6267): 1456–1457. doi:10.1126/science.350.6267.1456. PMID 26680172.
  486. "Ripples in spacetime: Science's 2016 Breakthrough of the Year". Adiran Cho. AAAS. 22 December 2016. Retrieved 23 December 2016.
  487. "Choose your 2018 Breakthrough of the Year!". Science. AAAS. Retrieved 28 November 2018.

References

  • Bourbaki, Nicolas (1998). Elements of the History of Mathematics. Berlin, Heidelberg, and New York: Springer-Verlag. ISBN 3-540-64767-8.
  • Bowman, John S. (2000). Columbia Chronologies of Asian History and Culture. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-11004-9.
  • Buisseret, David. (1998). Envisioning the City: Six Studies in Urban Cartography. Chicago: University Of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-07993-7.
  • Curtis, Robert I. (2008). "Food Processing and Preparation". In Oleson, John Peter (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of Engineering and Technology in the Classical World. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-518731-1.
  • Day, Lance and Ian McNeil. (1996). Biographical Dictionary of the History of Technology. New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-06042-7.
  • de Vos, Mariette (2011). "The Rural Landscape of Thugga: Farms, Presses, Mills, and Transport". In Bowman, Alan; Wilson, Andrew (eds.). The Roman Agricultural Economy: Organization, Investment, and Production. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-966572-3.
  • Ebrey, Patricia Buckley (1999). The Cambridge Illustrated History of China. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-66991-X (paperback).
  • Ebrey, Walthall, Palais, (2006). East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.
  • Elisseeff, Vadime. (2000). The Silk Roads: Highways of Culture and Commerce. New York: Berghahn Books. ISBN 1-57181-222-9.
  • Hounshell, David A. (1984), From the American System to Mass Production, 1800–1932: The Development of Manufacturing Technology in the United States, Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press, ISBN 978-0-8018-2975-8, LCCN 83016269, OCLC 1104810110
  • Hucker, Charles O. (1975). China's Imperial Past: An Introduction to Chinese History and Culture. Stanford, Calif. : Stanford University. ISBN 0-8018-4595-5.
  • Hunter, Dard (1978). Papermaking: The History and Technique of an Ancient Craft. Mineola: Dover Publications, Inc. ISBN 0-486-23619-6.
  • Gernet, Jacques (1962). Daily Life in China on the Eve of the Mongol Invasion, 1250-1276. Translated by H.M. Wright. Stanford: Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-0720-0.
  • Gernet, Jacques. (1996). A History of Chinese Civilization. Translated by J.R. Foster and Charles Hartman. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-49781-7.
  • Kreutz, Barbara M. (1973) "Mediterranean Contributions to the Medieval Mariner's Compass", Technology and Culture, 14 (3: July), p. 367–383
  • Lo, Andrew. "The Game of Leaves: An Inquiry into the Origin of Chinese Playing Cards", Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, Vol. 63, No. 3 (2000): 389–406.
  • Loewe, Michael. (1968). Everyday Life in Early Imperial China during the Han Period 202 BC–AD 220. London: B.T. Batsford Ltd.; New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons.
  • Maddin, Robert (1988), The Beginning of the Use of Metals and Alloys, The MIT Press, ISBN 9780262132329
  • Needham, Joseph (1954), Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 1, Introductory Orientations, Cambridge University Press
  • Needham, Joseph, Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 2, Mechanical Engineering. Taipei: Caves Books Ltd.,1986 ISBN 0-521-07060-0
  • Needham, Joseph (1962). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology; Part 1, Physics. Cambridge University Press., reprinted Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd. (1986)
  • Needham, Joseph and Tsien Tsuen-Hsuin. (1985). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 5, Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Part 1, Paper and Printing. Cambridge University Press., reprinted Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd. (1986)
  • Needham, Joseph. (1987). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 5, Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Part 7, Military Technology; the Gunpowder Epic. Cambridge University Press.
  • Needham, Joseph (2004) [1962], Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology; Part 1, Physics, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-05802-3
  • Pigott, Vincent C. (1999). The Archaeometallurgy of the Asian Old World. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology. ISBN 0-924171-34-0.
  • Pryor, John H.; Jeffreys, Elizabeth M. (2006), The Age of the ΔΡΟΜΩΝ: The Byzantine Navy ca. 500–1204, Brill Academic Publishers, ISBN 978-9004151970
  • Roland, Alex (1992), "Secrecy, Technology, and War: Greek Fire and the Defense of Byzantium", Technology and Culture, 33 (4): 655–679, doi:10.2307/3106585, JSTOR 3106585, S2CID 113017993
  • Ronan, Colin A. (1994). The Shorter Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 4. Cambridge : Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-32995-7.
  • Sivin, Nathan (1995). Science in Ancient China: Researches and Reflections. Brookfield, Vermont: VARIORUM, Ashgate Publishing.
  • Stark, Miriam T. (2005). Archaeology of Asia. Malden, MA : Blackwell Pub. ISBN 1-4051-0213-6.
  • Theophanes; Turtledove, Harry (Transl.) (1982), The chronicle of Theophanes: an English translation of anni mundi 6095–6305 (A.D. 602–813), University of Pennsylvania Press, ISBN 978-0812211283
  • Wagner, Donald B. (1993). Iron and Steel in Ancient China: Second Impression, With Corrections. Leiden: E.J. Brill. ISBN 90-04-09632-9.
  • Wagner, Donald B. (2001). The State and the Iron Industry in Han China. Copenhagen: Nordic Institute of Asian Studies Publishing. ISBN 87-87062-83-6.
  • Wang, Zhongshu. (1982). Han Civilization. Translated by K.C. Chang and Collaborators. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-02723-0.
  • Wood, Nigel. (1999). Chinese Glazes: Their Origins, Chemistry, and Recreation. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 0-8122-3476-6.
This article is issued from Wikipedia. The text is licensed under Creative Commons - Attribution - Sharealike. Additional terms may apply for the media files.