Hydrology

Kamanyola high plateau situated in the Ruzizi Plain within the Ngweshe Chiefdom, April 2023

The area boasts a vast hydrographic features comprising numerous rivers that flow through its terrain. The Mubimbi River courses through the chiefdom, collecting water from various tributaries, streams, and smaller rivers along its path, ensuring a steady year-round water flow. This river serves as a vital source of irrigation for agricultural activities. Correspondingly, the Nshesha River flows through the Ngweshe Chiefdom, receiving water from its own network of tributaries and smaller streams. It nourishes the surrounding lands and contributes to the overall water resources. The convergence of the Mubimbi and Nshesha Rivers ultimately forms the Ulindi River. This major waterway acts as a vital tributary of the Congo River, one of Africa's longest and most significant rivers. The chiefdom's northern border is formed by the Bishalalo River in the Karhongo groupement, which separates it from the Mumosho groupement in Kabare Territory. The chiefdom is also crossed by the Luzinzi River and the Mugaba River in the Karhongo groupement, and to the east, it is traversed by the Ruzizi River, which acts as a natural border with the Republic of Rwanda.^{[9][10][8][2][11]}

Climate

The Ngweshe Chiefdom experiences a humid subtropical climate with distinct dry and rainy seasons.^[12][13] The dry season is characterized by elevated temperatures and a limited amount of rainfall.

A farmer in Kamanyola

During this period, the weather tends to be hot and arid, with a scarcity of precipitation. The dry season provides favorable conditions for certain agricultural practices, particularly the cultivation of marshy areas. Farmers take advantage of the reduced water levels in these regions to engage in activities such as rice farming or other crops that thrive in drier conditions. The average annual temperature in Ngweshe falls within the range of 19 °C to 23 °C, providing a generally mild and comfortable climate throughout the year. However, during the dry season, temperatures can rise to higher levels, with occasional heatwaves that further contribute to the aridity of the region. In contrast to the dry season, Ngweshe experiences a significant amount of rainfall during the rainy season. This period is characterized by increased humidity and more frequent precipitation. The rains rejuvenate the landscape, replenishing the water sources, and nourishing the agricultural fields. The region's flora and fauna also thrive during this time, benefiting from the abundant moisture. The specifics of the rainy season, such as its duration and intensity, may vary from year to year.^[6][13]

Geology

The chiefdom exhibits a diverse range of soil types. The predominant soils consist of clayey-sandy red laterite, loose black soils, stony soils, and alluvial soils found in marshes and lowlands. However, these soils are incrementally impoverished due to erosion and overpopulation, leading to numerous land disputes within the area. The presence of clayey soil exacerbates the region's challenges. Some areas have steep slopes, while others feature rugged terrain, such as Kaniola, Izege, Luciga, Karhongo, Rubimbi, and Mushinga. In the lowlands, Ngweshe is home to four significant marshes: Cidorho, Nyamubanda, Cisheke, and Nyalugana. Collectively spanning over 4,000 hectares, these marshes play a crucial role in the local ecosystem. However, soil degradation and population pressure have likely impacted the overall health of these marshes negatively. The consequences of soil degradation and overpopulation are particularly evident in the decline of livestock farming in Ngweshe. The scarcity of pasture lands has led to a noticeable decrease in livestock numbers, posing a challenge to the traditional livelihoods of the local communities.^[6]

Groupements

As of 2018, the Ngweshe Chiefdom comprised 16 groupements (groupings):^[15]

Security problems

During the Rwandan genocide, the Ngweshe Chiefdom faced significant security challenges. In response to the Interahamwe and Hutu refugees seeking shelter, Mobutu Sese Seko extended refuge, provoking an invasion of the Democratic Republic of the Congo by Rwanda and Uganda in 1996, known as the First Congo War. The Alliance of Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Congo-Zaire (AFDL), led by Laurent-Désiré Kabila and supported by units of the Rwandan Patriotic Army (RPA), and Forces Armées Burundaises (FAB), carried out brutal actions within the chiefdom and its adjoining areas. They dismantled refugee camps and perpetrated massacres and small-scale killings across various regions of eastern DRC, particularly in Uvira, Bukavu, Fizi, Walungu, Kabare, Kalehe, Shabunda, Goma, Rutchuru, Mugunga, Lac Vert, Masisi, Walikale, Tingi-Tingi, Amisi, Pangi, Kasongo, and Kindu. The AFDL and RPA forces destroyed Hutu makeshift camps and committed massacres in Uvira Territory, advancing towards Bukavu. They targeted the camps created by refugee survivors of massacres in the Ruzizi Plain and the west of Bukavu city.^[17][18]

Rape victims who have been successfully reintegrated into their communities assemble in a "peace hut" near Walungu Territory

In specific instances, the AFDL/RPA troops attacked a refugee camp in the Kamanyola groupement on October 20, 1996, resulting in the deaths of an unknown number of refugees and Zairian civilians. Subsequently, on October 21, they killed an unknown number of refugees in Nyarubale in the Kalunga hills, as the refugees attempted to reach Bukavu.^[19] The AFDL/RPA units also killed several hundred refugees fleeing along routes between Nyantende and Walungu-Centre, as well as Nyantende and Bukavu, predominantly targeting women, children, and the elderly. These attacks involved shootings, bayonet strikes, shrapnel, and the deliberate burning of refugee sites. Incidentally, the Chimanga camp, located seventy-one kilometers west of Bukavu, witnessed the killing of several hundred refugees by AFDL/RPA units around November 22, 1996. According to the United Nations Mapping Report, between 500 and 800 refugees lost their lives in this incident.^[19] In January 1997, along the Bukavu to Walungu road, approximately sixteen kilometers from Bukavu city, the AFDL/RPA units killed at least thirty Rwandan and Burundian refugees, mostly employing knives.^[19]

The security situation worsened during the Second Congo War, as elements of the Rally for Congolese Democracy (RCD) and RPA recruited numerous young minors, including those from Ngweshe Chiefdom. Initially, voluntary recruitment campaigns were launched, targeting parents. However, due to limited success, forced recruitment became prevalent, with children being kidnapped from schools and markets. These abducted minors were then subjected to military training in DRC or Rwanda under the orders of the RPA. As of 2002, over a thousand minors were still enlisted in the ranks of the RCD.^[20] Forced recruitment of children persisted until at least June 2003 when the conflict concluded with the signing of the Global and Inclusive Agreement and the establishment of a transitional government. However, the aftermath of these wars continues to impact the region, with enduring consequences of violence, displacement, and trauma that the communities of Ngweshe Chiefdom continue to grapple with.^{[20][21][22][23]}