Uvira Territory
Territory
Uvira, September 2019
Uvira, September 2019
Uvira Territory is located in Democratic Republic of the Congo
Uvira Territory
Uvira Territory
Coordinates: 3°15′00″S 29°07′59″E / 3.25°S 29.133°E / -3.25; 29.133
Country DR Congo
ProvinceSouth Kivu
CapitalUvira
Government
 • AdministratorMabiswa Selemani (UDPS)[1]
Area
[2]
 • Total3,146 km2 (1,215 sq mi)
Population
 (2020)[2]
 • Total1,165,092
 • Density370/km2 (960/sq mi)
Time zoneUTC+2 (CAT)
Official languageFrench
National languageKiswahili
ClimateAw

Uvira Territory is a territory in South Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Congo.[3] It is bordered by Walungu Territory to the north, Mwenga Territory to the west, Fizi Territory to the south, and Burundi and Lake Tanganyika to the east. Its capital is Uvira.[4]

Located in the eastern part of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), It comprises 14 districts that together form Uvira. The territory is home to Kalundu Port, which connects Uvira to Kalemie in the north of Tanganyika Province, as well as Kigoma in Tanzania. Uvira is situated 120 km away from Bukavu, 88 km from Baraka in Fizi Territory, and 26.5 km from Bujumbura.[5][6] The main road in the territory is the RN5, which connects to the city of Bukavu in the north and to Lubumbashi in the south.[6]

Geography

Uvira Territory is located between 29° and 29°30’ E (longitude) and 3°20’ and 4°20’ S (latitude). It sits at an elevation between 800 and 900 meters above sea level.[7][8] The terrain is primarily mountainous and hilly, with the Mitumba Mountains extending along its western border. These mountains, part of the Albertine Rift, contribute to the picturesque landscape of the area.[8][9] The highlands are covered in lush green vegetation, including forests and savannahs, which provide habitat to a wide array of plant and animal species.[10]

Hydrology

The Ruzizi River links Lake Kivu to Lake Tanganyika, serving as a significant water body in the region. It provides water for irrigation and supports agricultural activities. The river collects water from several rivers originating from the hills of Burundi and the western part of the Ruzizi Plain. The most important rivers in the Congolese part are the Luvimvi River in Katogota, the Luvubu River in Lubarika, the Luvungi River in Luvungi, the Luberizi River in Luberizi, the Sange River in Sange, and the Runingu River in Runingu in the Uvira Territory. The rivers found in the city of Uvira include the Kiliba Rivers (which flow into the Ruzizi), Kavimvira, Mulongwe, and Kalimabenge. These three large rivers cross the city of Uvira and flow directly into Lake Tanganyika.[11][12][13][14]

The Ruzizi River, July 2010
Uvira, Uvira Territory, South Kivu Province, May 2012

Rainfall is abundant throughout the year, with two main rainy seasons, contributing to the formation of numerous streams and runoff that eventually reach the rivers and the lake. The hilly terrain and permeable soils allow for the infiltration of water, replenishing groundwater aquifers that serve as vital water sources for domestic and agricultural use.

Geology

The Albertine Rift contributes to the mountainous and hilly terrain observed in Uvira Territory, with the Mitumba Mountains along the western border displaying evidence of intense folding, faulting, and uplift. These mountains are composed of sedimentary, metamorphic, and volcanic rocks. The region has also experienced volcanic activity, as remnants of volcanic rocks like basalt and rhyolite indicate past eruptions. Sedimentary deposits, such as sandstone, shale, and limestone, attest to the accumulation of materials in marine, lacustrine, and fluvial environments.[15] Furthermore, the territory exhibits various soil types, ranging from very sandy to sandy loam and occasionally sandy clay. In the northwestern basin of Lake Tanganyika, there are outcrops of very old (Precambrian) and very recent (Quaternary) rocks.[15][16][17]

History

Early history

Instruments and utensils of Vira people, July 1860

The Bazoba fishermen were the first to settle in the region. They settled along the shores of Lake Tanganyika and relied heavily on the lake's resources for their sustenance and livelihoods. In the 17th century, the Banyalenge immigrants, led by their chief Lenge, settled in the region around Lake Tanganyika, coming from Lwindi near the Ulindi River in the mountainous hinterland. Over time, they became known as the Bavira.[18][19][20][21]

Following the establishment of the Bavira, the Bahamba clan of the Fuliiru people migrated to the area alongside eight other clans. According to Alfred Moeller de Laddersous, the Bahamba (Wahamba) clan changed their eponym to Bafuliiru. Consequently, the Bafuliiru clashed with the Bavira at the Kiliba River, after which the Bafuliiru established themselves north of the Bavira and partially within Bavira territory. They had their own paramount leader who did not depend on the Bavira paramount. The Bafulirru gradually occupied several localities in Uvira, intermarried with Bavira, and some were assimilated into Fuliiru clans.[22][19]

Barundi and Banyarwanda immigration

In the second half of the 19th century, Banyarwanda and Barundi pastoralists from the mountainous regions of Rwanda and Burundi settled in the area. They were accommodated by Fuliiru chiefs and established themselves in Vira and the Fuliiru territories of Mulenge and Upper Sange.[23][24]

Mining by the Union Minière du Haut Katanga, 1922. Many Banyarwanda were recruited for labor.

During the colonial era (1908–1960), the region hosted a second wave of immigrants who arrived as part of the Mission d'immigration des Banyarwanda (MIB), a movement to transplant Banyarwanda to the Belgian Congo driven by the Belgian colonial authorities who needed a workforce in European plantations and the mines of Union Minière du Haut Katanga.[25][26] In 1928, the Belgian colonial power created new chiefdoms for Barundi, Banyarwanda, and the Arabized populace in the territory of Bafuliiru. The creation of these chiefdoms was met with fierce resistance by Mwami Mahima Mukogabwe, a Fuliiru chieftain of Bafuliiru Chiefdom (Chefferie de Bafuliiru), who considered it an encroachment on the authority of his chiefdom.[27][28]

In the 1950s and 1960s, the region hosted a third wave of immigrants during the Rwandan Revolution, a period which experienced the abolition of the Rwandan monarchy and the establishment of a Hutu-dominated government. Consequently, numerous Tutsis who were affiliated with the oppressive monarchy, including their Umwami (King), sought refuge in neighboring countries such as Uganda, Congo-Léopoldville, and Tanzania, resulting in their mass exodus.[29][26] The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) facilitated the settlement of refugees in historically significant sites such as Lemera, Mulenge, and Katobo, mirroring the locations where their predecessors sought refuge in the 19th century. Many of these refugees ended up dispersing throughout various parts of the Kivu Region and settling in some of its most remote and inaccessible areas.[30][31][32]

Administrative aspects

The Uvira Territory was established on March 28, 1912, through a royal decree as part of the territorial organization of the Belgian Congo, specifically within the Kivu District. The name and boundaries of the territory were defined by Ordinance laws, specifically Ordinance N°4/A./.MO dated March 21, 1932 (which implemented the royal decree of March 28, 1912), and Ordinance N° 44/A./.MO dated December 2, 1938, modified by Ordinance N°67/221 dated May 3, 1967.[33]

Presently, the Uvira Territory is one of the eight rural regions that make up the former South Kivu Subregion, with Uvira being its former capital. It is now an integral part of South Kivu Province, which gained provincial status in 1988.[33][34]

Administrative subdivisions

In 2009 Uvira Territory was divided into three cities (cités), which were further subdivided into 32 quarters (quartiers). Additionally, there are three chiefdoms (chefferies), which where further divided into 16 groupings (groupements), and three management positions (postes d'encadrement).[33]

Cities (cités)

Cité of Uvira

14 quarters

 Cité of Kagando/Kiliba

9 quarters

 Cité of Sange

9 quarters

Kavimvira Rukangaba Musenyi
Rugenge Kawizi Kahungwe
Kasenga Kavunge Rutanga
Kakombe Butaho Nyakabere
Rombe I Hongero Nyakabere
Rombe II Rusabagi Kajembo
Kibondwe South Karava Nyakabere
Milongwe Kahorohoro Nyakabere
Kimanga Katwenge/Kiliba Kyanyunda
Nyamianda Kinanira
Songo Kibogoye
Kabindula Kahungwe
Kilibula
Kalundu

Chiefdoms (chefferies)

Bavira Chiefdom

7 groupings

 Bafuliiru Chiefdom

5 groupings

 The Ruzizi Plain Chiefdom

4 groupings

Kalungwe Lemera Luberizi
Makobola Itara/Luvungi Kabunambo
Kitundu Kigoma Kakamba
Katala Runingu Kagando
Kidjaga Muhungu
Kabindula
Bijombo

Conflict and insecurity

Over the course of three decades, the region has been plagued by a series of armed conflicts and persistent political instability. Competition over land, resources, and political control have contributed to heightened tensions and rampant violence in the territory. Furthermore, the reverberating effects of conflicts in neighboring countries, including Burundi and Rwanda, have periodically exacerbated insecurity in the region.[35][36][37]

During the Rwandan genocide, the Uvira Territory housed a substantial number of Hutu refugees, along with ex-FAR/Interahamwe elements and Burundian CNDD-FDD rebels, who were escaping the advance of the Rwandan Patriotic Army (RPA) and sought safety and sanctuary in the territory.[38]

First Congo War

At the beginning of the First Congo War, the Alliance of Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Congo (AFDL), a rebel coalition led by Laurent-Désiré Kabila, received support from the RPA and the Forces Armées Burundaises (FAB). Their involvement in pursuing Hutu refugees and overthrowing Mobutu Sese Seko's government was marked by human rights abuses. These abuses were driven by Mobutu's authoritarian regime, which marginalized, discriminated against, and persecuted Banyamulenge.[39][40][41]

Mobutu Sese Seko sporting a typical abacost in 1983

Policies implemented by Mobutu's government specifically targeted Banyamulenge, denying them political, social, and economic opportunities. Banyamulenge were accused of aligning with external forces of Rwanda, Burundi, Uganda, and Tanzania and used this as a pretext for persecution.[42][43][44] This led to harassment, arbitrary arrests, violence, and forced expulsions. Such mistreatment, combined with other forms of discrimination and human rights abuses, intensified opposition to Mobutu's regime.[41][45] Tutsis from Rwanda, Uganda, and Burundi rallied behind this opposition, seeking an end to discriminatory practices and the establishment of a more inclusive and just political system.[46] However, the RPA, AFDL, and FAB faced accusations of committing human rights violations. Reports indicate that these forces engaged in indiscriminate attacks on civilians, extrajudicial killings, sexual violence, and forced displacement. They targeted Hutu refugee camps in eastern Zaire, where large populations of Hutu civilians were living in dire conditions. Consequently, the actions of the RPA contributed to civilian casualties and exacerbated the humanitarian crisis in the region.[39][46]

Sake, Zaire refugees 1996

On October 6, 1996, the AFDL and members of the Banyamulenge-led armed group committed a massacre at Lemera Hospital in Uvira Territory, South Kivu Province. Numerous patients, including Hutu refugees, Zairian soldiers, and Zairian civilians perished as a result. The UN Mapping Report estimates that about 37 persons were killed in their beds with bayonets or gunshots.[47][48] During the night of October 13 to 14, 1996, the AFDL and Banyamulenge armed units killed four refugees and injured seven others in the Runingu camp in Uvira Territory.[49] Moving on to October 20, 1996, AFDL/APR/FAB units killed approximately 100 Burundian and Rwandan Hutu refugees in Itara I and II refugee camps near Luvungi village in Uvira Territory.[49] In the neighboring village of Katala, they captured and killed refugees at point-blank range who were attempting to flee. The soldiers then compelled local people to bury the bodies in mass graves.[49] On the same day, October 20, 1996, AFDL/APR/FAB units killed an unspecified number of refugees, including around twenty in the camp's hospital in Kanganiro camp at Luvungi in Uvira Territory. They also killed an unknown number of refugees who had sought shelter in the homes of Zairian civilians at Luvingi.[49] Additionally, on October 20, 1996, AFDL/APR/FAB units killed an unknown number of refugees and Zairian civilians who were fleeing towards Burundi in Rubenga village of Uvira Territory.[49] The victims' bodies were then discarded in the Ruzizi River. Moving forward to October 21, 1996, AFDL/APR/FAB units killed an unknown number of Rwandan and Burundian refugees, as well as Zairian civilians who were trying to escape the village after the departure of the FAZ in Lubarika village of Uvira Territory. The soldiers forced local people to bury the bodies in four large mass graves.[49] On the same day, soldiers also burned thirty refugees alive in a house in Kakumbukumbu village, five kilometers from Lubarika camp in Uvira Territory.[49] Furthermore, on October 21, 1996, AFDL/APR/FAB units killed around 370 refugees in Luberizi and Mutarule. The soldiers disposed of the victims' bodies in pit latrines, while other bodies were found in houses in the two towns.[49]

The AFDL/APR/FAB units continued to launch attacks against Hutu refugees in various parts of Uvira Territory, including Kagunga, Uvira, Kiliba, Ndunda, Ngendo, Mwaba, Bwegera, Sange, Rwenena, Kahororo, 8th CEPZA (Pentecostal Community of Zaire) Church, COTONCO, Rukogero, and Ruzia.[49]

By May 1997, the AFDL and Banyamulenge armed forces had taken over large swaths of the nation and captured the capital, Kinshasa. Laurent-Désiré Kabila took over as president after Mobutu left the country, dubbing it the Democratic Republic of the Congo.[50][51]

Second Congo War

In the Second Congo War, the region experienced intense armed conflicts, turning it into a major battleground. After assuming power in 1997, Laurent-Désiré Kabila's government faced accusations of marginalizing and discriminating against Tutsis. Kabila's government excluded Tutsis from positions of influence and power, leading to a sense of exclusion and resentment among the Tutsi population. This exclusionary policy caused discontent and sparked tensions, particularly with Rwanda and Uganda, as they had supported Kabila's rise to power. In response, a faction of Tutsi soldiers, with the support of Rwandan and Ugandan armies, formed a rebel group known as the Rally for Congolese Democracy (RCD) aimed at overthrowing President Laurent-Désiré Kabila.[52][43][53]

Monument of the Katogota massacre in the Uvira Territory

During the war, various factions, including government forces, rebel groups, and foreign militias, committed atrocities and human rights abuses. Civilians, regardless of their ethnicity, suffered during the conflict, with widespread displacement, sexual violence, and other war-related atrocities affecting communities across the country.[54]

On August 6, 1998, the Rally for Congolese Democracy–Goma (Rassemblement Congolais pour la Démocratie-Goma; RCD-Goma), a faction of the RCD, killed tens of civilians in Uvira in Uvira Territory. Hundreds of victims were killed during confrontations, while others were executed in search operations after the fighting ended. The soldiers also perpetrated acts of rape against women during these operations.[55] Additionally, on August 6, 1998, elements of RCD-Goma killed 13 people, including the chief of the Kiringye area, in the village of Lwiburule, located 53 kilometers northwest of Uvira.[55] Moreover, on August 6, 1998, elements of the RCD-Goma and RPA killed 15 people in the area around Kivovo, Kigongo, and Kalungwe villages, located 11 kilometers south of Uvira in Uvira Territory. In the Uvira Territory town of Katogota on May 14, 2000, RCD-Goma carried out a massacre that left more than 300 people dead.[56][57][58]

Efforts to end the war gained traction in 2002, resulting in the signing of the Sun City Agreement in South Africa. The agreement aimed to establish a transitional government and a roadmap for peace and stability in the DRC. The war officially concluded in July 2003 with the signing of the Global and All-Inclusive Agreement on Transition in Kinshasa. However, despite the formal end of the conflict, the region continued to face significant challenges in achieving lasting peace and stability. Armed groups persisted in the eastern hills and high plateaus, perpetuating violence and instability.[59][60][61][62]

In June 2014, around 35 people were killed in an attack in the South Kivu village of Mutarule. The attack was apparently part of dispute over cattle.[63]

Economy

Agriculture

The progress of cassava production in Katogota

Agriculture is the cornerstone of the regional economy. The sector contributes significantly to employment, income generation, food security, and trade within the territory and beyond. The reliance on agriculture is particularly pronounced due to limited industrialization and the predominance of rural communities. Small-scale farmers and agricultural laborers form a significant portion of the local workforce, especially in Kijaga, Kalungwe, Kitundu, Kabindula, Katala, Kagando, and Muhungu, where agricultural fields are present. Subsistence farming dominates this agricultural activity. Additionally, the livestock sector employs a considerable number of people engaged in animal husbandry and veterinary services.[16][64][65][66]

The commercial circuit of the population in the city of Uvira and its surroundings is reliant on the sale of agricultural products and basic necessities from Bukavu, Burundi, Tanzania, and Zambia. However, limited access to modern farming technologies, inadequate infrastructure, and weak market linkages hinder the sector's full potential. Insufficient transport networks, storage facilities, and processing units limit the efficiency of agricultural value chains and hinder farmers' ability to reach broader markets. Government agencies, non-governmental organizations, and development partners collaborate to provide technical assistance, training programs, and financial support to farmers.[67][68][69]

Languages

Fuliiru traditional dance in Sange, 2004

The predominant languages are Swahili, Kifuliiru, Kivira, and Kijoba.[70] Kifuliiru is predominantly spoken from Kiliba to the Ruvimvi River, while Kijoba is spoken from Kalyamabenga to Sanza, historically serving as the boundary between Vira and Bembe communities.[71][72][73] Kivira, a hybrid language resulting from the convergence of Kifuliiru and Kijoba, is spoken from Kalyamabenga to Kiliba. Additionally, other languages such as Mashi, Kibembe, and Kinyarwanda are present in the territory, albeit in a secondary capacity. Notably, Swahili acts as the unifying language, transcending these diverse groups and serving as the most widely spoken language in the region.[74][75]

Municipalities

The territory has three rural municipalities with less than 80,000 voters:[76]

  • Kiliba, (29,127 voters, 7 councillors)
  • Luvungi, (24,378 voters, 7 councillors)
  • Sange, (32,279 voters, 7 councillors)

Education

University institutions

  • Université Notre Dame de Tanganyika (UNDT)
  • Uvira Community University (UCU)

Higher institutions

  • Institut Supérieur de Commerce (ISC-Uvira)
  • Institut Supérieur des Techniques Médicales d'Uvira (ISTM-Uvira)
  • Institut Supérieur Pédagogique d'Uvira (ISP-Uvira);
  • Institut Supérieur de Développement Rural d'Uvira (ISDR-Uvira)

Secondary and primary schools

The most secondary schools

  • Institut Mwanga D'uvira
  • Complex School Nuru
  • Institut Zawadi Ya Rais
  • Lycée Umoja d'Uvira
  • Institut Kitundu
  • Institute Kalundu
  • Institute D'uvira
  • ITAV Kasenga
  • Institut Mgr Guido Maria Conforti
  • Institut Du Lac
  • Institute Notre Dame Aux Larmes

The most famous primary schools

  • Primary School Les Anges Du Ciel (Ep les Anges);
  • École Primaire Action Kusaidia (Ep Action Kusaidia);
  • École primaire de Nuru (Ep Nuru);
  • École primaire de Munanira (Ep Munanira);
  • École primaire Kasenga (Ep Kasenga).

The best-known secondary schools in rural communes

Health facilities

  • Lemera Hospital
  • Hôpital Général de Référence d'Uvira
  • Hôpital Général de Reference de Kasenga
  • Centre Medicale Sos Village Uvira
  • Centre de Santé Mentale d'Uvira (CSMU)
  • Saint Luc
  • Rutasoka Clinic
  • CSDT Kavimvira
  • Centre de santé de référence Saint Charles borromee
  • Fondation Mukende

References

  1. ↑ Ngabo, E (23 January 2023). "Sud-Kivu: Installation officielle des nouveaux animateurs du territoire d'Uvira, la sécurité et la cohabitation pacifique sont leurs priorités". Kivu Times (in French). Retrieved 27 September 2023.
  2. 1 2 "Cellule d'Analyses des Indicateurs de Développement". caid.cd (in French). Archived from the original on 2021-04-24. Retrieved 2023-03-26.
  3. ↑ "Sud-Kivu: des attaques attribuées aux FDLR et FARDC dans 5 territoires". Radio Okapi (in French). 2011-04-06. Retrieved 2012-08-29.
  4. ↑ "Que nous disent les inondations de la ville d'Uvira ?". Actualite.cd (in French). 2020-05-31. Retrieved 2023-06-02.
  5. ↑ "L'analyse de la situation sécurité alimentaire en province du SUD KIVU". World Food Programme. December 8, 2022. Retrieved 2023-06-01.
  6. 1 2 "RD Congo : Uvira, ville-morte, dénonce l'insécurité". information.tv5monde.com (in French). 2019-02-04. Retrieved 2023-06-02.
  7. ↑ Plisnier, P.-D.; Chitamwebwa, D.; Mwape, L.; Tshibangu, K.; Langenberg, V.; Coenen, E. (1999). "Limnological annual cycle inferred from physical-chemical fluctuations at three stations of Lake Tanganyika". From Limnology to Fisheries: Lake Tanganyika and Other Large Lakes. pp. 45–58. doi:10.1007/978-94-017-1622-2_4. hdl:2268/294749. ISBN 978-90-481-5339-8.
  8. 1 2 Cirimwami, Jean-Pierre Kashangabuye; Ramananarivo, Sylvain; Mutabazi, Augustin Ngaboyeka; Muhigwa, Bahananga; Bisimwa, Espoir Basengere; Ramananarivo, Romaine; Razafiarijaona, Jules (May 2019). "Analyse de la situation de la sécurité alimentaire au sein des ménages du Sud-Kivu montagneux en République Démocratique du Congo" [Analysis of the food security situation in South-Kivu mountainous households in the Democratic Republic of Congo]. International Journal of Innovation and Applied Studies (in French). 26 (2): 503–525. ProQuest 2307953439.
  9. ↑ Report. Contributor: Uganda Geological Department. Entebbe, Uganda: Government Printer. 1924. p. 10.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
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  13. ↑ "Inondations à Uvira : un corps sans vie retrouvé et plus de 200 maisons détruites". Radio Okapi (in French). 2020-05-06. Retrieved 2023-06-01.
  14. ↑ Greenbaum, Eli (2017). Emerald Labyrinth: A Scientist's Adventures in the Jungles of the Congo. Lebanon, New Hampshire: University Press of New England. p. 171. ISBN 9781512601206.
  15. 1 2 Nacishali Nteranya, Jean (February 2021). "Cartographie de l'érosion hydrique des sols et priorisation des mesures de conservation dans le territoire d'Uvira (République démocratique du Congo)". VertigO. 20 (3). doi:10.4000/vertigo.28888. S2CID 234071876.
  16. 1 2 Iragi, Gentil Kaboyi; Rusaati, Butoto Imani wa; Nfizi, Innocent Byamungu; Masumbuko, Cephas Ndabaga; Gendusa, Patience Arusi; Furaha, Astrid Matendo; Kang, Jun-Won (2021-07-03). "Ethnomedicinal study of plants used in the Uvira Territory (Democratic Republic of Congo)". Forest Science and Technology. 17 (3): 144–154. Bibcode:2021ForST..17..144I. doi:10.1080/21580103.2021.1963327. S2CID 237565603.
  17. ↑ Manya, Mboni Henry; Keymeulen, Flore; Ngezahayo, Jérémie; Bakari, Amuri Salvius; Kalonda, Mutombo Emery; Kahumba, Byanga Joh; Duez, Pierre; Stévigny, Caroline; Lumbu, Simbi Jean-Baptiste (March 2020). "Antimalarial herbal remedies of Bukavu and Uvira areas in DR Congo: An ethnobotanical survey". Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 249: 112422. doi:10.1016/j.jep.2019.112422. PMID 31765762. S2CID 208298924.
  18. ↑ Moeller, Alfred (1936). Les grandes lignes des migrations des Bantus de la province orientale du Congo Belge (PDF) (in French). Belgium: G. van Campenhout. p. 136.
  19. 1 2 Chrétien, Jean-Pierre (2003). The Great Lakes of Africa: Two Thousand Years of History. Brooklyn, New York City: Zone Books. p. 165. ISBN 9781890951344.
  20. ↑ Weis, George (1959). Le Pays d'Uvira, étude de géographie régionale sur la bordure occidentale du lac Tanganika (in French). Gembloux, Belgium: J. Duculot. p. 142.
  21. ↑ Depelchin, Jacques (1974). From Pre-capitalism to Imperialism: A History of Social and Economic Formations in Eastern Zaire. Stanford, California.: Stanford University. pp. 9–44.
  22. ↑ Moeller, Alfred (1936). Les grandes lignes des migrations des Bantus de la province orientale du Congo Belge (PDF) (in French). Belgium: G. van Campenhout.
  23. ↑ Pottier, Johan (September 26, 2002). Re-Imagining Rwanda: Conflict, Survival and Disinformation in the Late Twentieth Century. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. p. 16. ISBN 9780521528733.
  24. ↑ Depelchin, Jacques (1974). From Pre-capitalism to Imperialism: A History of Social and Economic Formations in Eastern Zaire (Uvira Zone, C. 1800-1965). Stanford, California: Stanford University. pp. 80–90.
  25. ↑ Kapapi, John (March 28, 2019). Lies of the Tutsi in Eastern Congo/Zaire: A Case Study: South Kivu (Pre-Colonial to 2018). Bloomington, Indiana. pp. 9–10. ISBN 9781796022896.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  26. 1 2 Spitaels, R. (1953). Transplantation de Banyarwanda dans le Nord Kivu, Problèmes d'Afrique Centrale 2 (in French). p. 110.
  27. ↑ Exilés, réfugiés, déplacés en Afrique centrale et orientale (in French). Contributor: André Guichaoua. Paris, France: Éditions Karthala. April 2004. p. 648. ISBN 9782811138424.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
  28. ↑ "Comprendre les conflits dans l'Est du Congo (I) : la plaine de la Ruzizi" (PDF) (in French). Brussels, Belgium: International Crisis Group. July 23, 2013. pp. 5–6. Retrieved 2023-06-02.
  29. ↑ Williame, Jean-Claude (1997). "Zaïre: État De Crise Et Perspectives Futures". Refugee Survey Quarterly. 16 (1): 26–41. doi:10.1093/rsq/16.1.26. ISSN 1020-4067. JSTOR 45053056.
  30. ↑ Kapapi, John (March 28, 2019). Lies of the Tutsi in Eastern Congo/Zaire: A Case Study: South Kivu (Pre-Colonial to 2018). Bloomington, Indiana. pp. 14–15. ISBN 9781796022896.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
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  32. ↑ Nzuzi, Bernard Laba (2007). L'équation congolaise: visiter le passé afin de mieux s'armer pour l'avenir (in French). Paris, France: Éditions L'Harmattan. p. 94. ISBN 9782296037274.
  33. 1 2 3 Assusa, Jean Esse (2011). "Impact de l'importation du pain sur la production locale dans le territoire d'Uvira en RDC de 2007 à 2010" [Impact of bread importation on local production in the Uvira territory in the DRC from 2007 to 2010] (in French). Bukavu, South Kivu Province, Democratic Republic of the Congo: Institut Supérieur Pédagogique de Bukavu (ISP-Bukavu). Retrieved 2023-06-11.
  34. ↑ U.S. Army Area Handbook for Thailand. Washington, D.C., United States: U.S. Government Printing Office. 1962. p. 279.
  35. ↑ "Au-delà des Groupes Armés : conflits locaux et connexions sous-regionales. L'exemple de Fizi et Uvira (Sud-Kivu, RDC). - Irénées". www.irenees.net (in French). Retrieved 2023-06-02.
  36. ↑ "RD Congo/Sud-Kivu: Territoire d'Uvira: Crise humanitaire dans le Groupement de Bijombo et Kalungwe due aux conflits intercommunautaires (avril 2017) - Democratic Republic of the Congo". reliefweb.int. 2017-05-31. Retrieved 2023-06-02.
  37. ↑ Muchukiwa, Bosco (2019). Conflits dans les moyens et les hauts plateaux de Fizi, Mwenga et Uvira: facteurs d'escalade, modus operandi des acteurs et crise politique régionale en perspective (PDF) (in French). Bukavu, Democratic Republic of the Congo: ISDR Bukavu.
  38. ↑ "Attacks against Hutu refugees – Uvira territory (South Kivu)". Retrieved 2023-06-02.
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  41. 1 2 Ending the Indifference!: Sexual Violence During the 1993-2003 Armed Conflict in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Burlington, Vermont: Rights & Democracy. 2011. pp. 24–27. ISBN 9782923539461.
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  43. 1 2 Clark, John F. (2001). "Explaining Ugandan Intervention in Congo: Evidence and Interpretations". The Journal of Modern African Studies. 39 (2): 261–287. doi:10.1017/S0022278X01003615. ISSN 0022-278X. JSTOR 3557264.
  44. ↑ Shiner, Cindy (1997-05-19). "KABILA: DESPOT OR DEMOCRAT? ACCOUNTS OF KABILA'S ODYSSEY CONTRADICTORY". Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. Retrieved 2023-06-03.
  45. ↑ Nshimbi, Christopher C.; Moyo, Inocent, eds. (April 25, 2019). African Borders, Conflict, Regional and Continental Integration. Oxfordshire, United Kingdom: Taylor & Francis. pp. https://www.google.com/books/edition/African_Borders_Conflict_Regional_and_Co/8SCVDwAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=mobutu+banyamulenge&pg=PT134&printsec=frontcover. ISBN 9780429614873.
  46. 1 2 Kabamba, Patience (2013). Business of Civil War: New Forms of Life in the Debris of the Democratic Republic of Congo. Dakar, Senegal: CODESRIA, Council for the Development of Social Science Research in Africa. p. 179. ISBN 9782869785526.
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  48. ↑ "Sud-Kivu – Massacre de Lemera : Denis Mukwege plaide pour la construction d'une sépulture " digne " en mémoire des victimes". www.mediacongo.net. Retrieved 2023-06-03.
  49. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 "Attacks against Hutu refugees – Uvira territory (South Kivu)". Retrieved 2023-06-03.
  50. ↑ "Zaire Watch News Briefs - 5 May 1997 - Democratic Republic of the Congo". reliefweb.int. 1997-05-05. Retrieved 2023-06-03.
  51. ↑ "Attacks against other civilian populations – Kinshasa". Retrieved 2023-06-03.
  52. ↑ Ngolet, F. (December 14, 2010). Crisis in the Congo: The Rise and Fall of Laurent Kabila. London, United Kingdom: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 9780230116252.
  53. ↑ Babu Katulondi, Hubert Kabasu (March 14, 2019). Democratisation in the Dr Congo from Joseph Mobutu to Joseph Kabila: A Modelled Exploration. Milton Keynes, United Kingdom: AuthorHouse UK. ISBN 9781728382876.
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  57. ↑ "Memoire Online - Bilan humain des conflits armés et ses conséquences sur le développement du territoire d'Uvira de 1996 à 2005. - Abel MUKUNDE SABUNI". Memoire Online. Retrieved 2023-06-03.
  58. ↑ "Report: Congo rebels slaughter 300 - UPI Archives". UPI. Retrieved 2023-06-03.
  59. ↑ Staff (2002-12-17). "Congo peace deal signed". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 2023-06-03.
  60. ↑ "Inter-Congolese Negotiations: The Final Act (Sun City Agreement)". peacemaker.un.org. Retrieved 2023-06-03.
  61. ↑ "Global and Inclusive Agreement on Transition in the Democratic Republic of Congo (Pretoria Agreement)". peacemaker.un.org. Retrieved 2023-06-03.
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  64. ↑ "Uvira – ADIB" (in French). Retrieved 2023-06-01.
  65. ↑ E, Ngabo (2022-07-07). "Uvira : Baisse de la production agricole, les habitants font face à la famine". Kivu Times. Retrieved 2023-06-01.
  66. ↑ Angélique, Neema Ciza; Stany, Vwima; Lebailly, Philippe; Azadi, Hossein (April 2022). "Agricultural Development in the Fight against Poverty: The Case of South Kivu, DR Congo". Land. 11 (4): 472. doi:10.3390/land11040472.
  67. ↑ libre, Le souverain (2022-11-04). "VILLE D'UVIRA: Les partenaires du PICAGEL et de l'IITA valorisent le manioc, l'agroforesterie et la culture bio fortifiée". Le Souverain Libre (in French). Retrieved 2023-06-01.
  68. ↑ "You are being redirected..." www.iita.org. Retrieved 2023-06-01.
  69. ↑ "CHOIX DU MODE DE TRANSPORT EN COMMUN DANS LA CITE D'UVIRA". www.africmemoire.com. Retrieved 2023-06-01.
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  71. ↑ Jouannet, Francis (1984). Phonologie du Kifuliru: Langue Bantoue du Groupe J (in French and Niger–Congo languages). Paris, France: Société d'études linguistiques et anthropologiques de France. pp. 1–13. ISBN 9782852971172.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link)
  72. ↑ Greenbaum, Eli (2017). Emerald Labyrinth: A Scientist's Adventures in the Jungles of the Congo. Lebanon, New Hampshire: University Press of New England. p. 171. ISBN 9781512601206.
  73. ↑ Muchukiwa, Bosco (September 2006). Territoires ethniques et territoires étatiques: Pouvoirs locaux et conflits interethniques au Sud-Kivu (RD Congo) (in French). Paris, France: Éditions L'Harmattan. p. 19. ISBN 9782296425569.
  74. ↑ Katchelewa, Shimbi Kamba (2001). L'Est du Congo-Zaïre: Uvira : aux sources d'une conscience rebelle (in French). Milan, Italy: Éditions 5 continents. pp. 40–44. ISBN 9782922300222.
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  76. ↑ "Répartition des sieges par circonscription électorale pour les élections législatives, provinciales, municipales et locales". Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo: CENI. 2018. Retrieved 2023-06-02.
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