| Kamula–Elevala | |
|---|---|
| Kamula–Elevala River | |
| Geographic distribution | northern Western Province, Papua New Guinea |
| Linguistic classification | Trans–New Guinea |
| Proto-language | Proto-Kamula–Elevala |
| Subdivisions |
|
| Glottolog | kamu1264 |
 Map: The Awin–Pa–Kamula languages of New Guinea
The Awin–Pa and Kamula languages
Other Trans–New Guinea languages
Other Papuan languages
Austronesian languages
Uninhabited | |
The Kamula–Elevala languages are a small family of the Trans–New Guinea languages spoken in the region of the Elevala River.
Languages
There are three languages, namely Aekyowm (Awin), Pare (Pa), and Kamula. They are not obviously related to each other, but Aekyowm and Pare are closer to each other than to Kamula.[2]
- Kamula
- Awin–Pa (Elevala River)
A more in-depth classification by Suter and Usher (2017) is as follows.[2]
- Kamula-Elevala family
Classification
Stephen Wurm (1975) added Awin and Pa to an expanded Central and South New Guinea branch of TNG, a position reversed by Ross (2005). The connection between Awin–Pa and Kamula was established by Suter & Usher.[3]
Reconstruction
| Proto-Kamula–Elevala | |
|---|---|
| Reconstruction of | Kamula–Elevala languages |
Reconstructed ancestors | |
Phonology
Usher (2020) reconstructs the consonant and vowel inventories as follows:[1]
Bilabial Alveolar Palatal Velar Nasal *m *n Plosive voiceless *p (or *h) *t *k voiced *b (or *p) *d *g Fricative *s Semivowel *w *j
| Front | Central | Back | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Close | *i | *u | |
| Close-mid | *e | *o | |
| Open-mid | *ɔ | ||
| Open | *æ | *a |
There is also the diphthong *ai.
Pronouns
Usher (2020) reconstructs the Awin–Pa pronouns as:[1]
sg du pl 1 *nɔ *ni, *ki 2 *go *gi 3 *jɔ
In the 1du, Awin has /ki/ and Pare /ni/, /niki/, /nigi/. The Kamula singular forms are quite similar (na, wa, je), but it does not have the dual.
Vocabulary
Some Proto-Kamula-Elevala lexical reconstructions by Usher (2020) are:[1]
gloss Proto-Kamula-Elevala head *ke̝ba ear *m[ɔ/o̝]d[ɔ/o̝] eye *kinɔ nose *kine̝ tusk/tooth *bate̝ tongue/flame *taⁱ knee/leg *tama bone *ke̝dɔ louse *awV dog *ti pig *m₂aⁱnæ bird *te̝ja egg/fruit/seed *m[ɔ/o̝]k[ɔ/o̝] tree *je̝ man *k[ɔ/o̝]b[a/ɔ] sun/day *gani stone *ike̝ name *pi eat/drink *de̝- one *tV[n/d]o̝
Below are all of the lexical reconstructions of Proto-Kamula-Elevala from Suter and Usher (2017):[2]
gloss Proto-Kamula-Elevala house *aja mushroom *ap(ɔ,o) hear *dade- where? *dai sago *daja eat, drink *de- burn, cook *du- middle *dunu brother *ei sun, day *gani belly, bowels *gene leech *gimada hold *hamV- upright *hane name *hi light (in weight) *hodoka stand, stay *hV- sago thatch *jeme hit *jV- bone *kedɔ man *kopo now, today *kwa- thigh *madina shoulder *makæ know *maN(æ,a)- teeth, mouth *mat(e,i) kindle *mi- son, child *mi body *mot(e,i) joint *mu tusk *patæ skin disease *peseni die *po- tie, wrap *podi pierce, burst *poko- heart, pity *pɔdɔw(e,a) be soft *pɔpɔtæ- close eyes *pudi- sit *pV- speech *sa rafter *saka paddle *sode tongue *tai afternoon *tamide make, do *ti- embers *tine bow (for arrows) *tɔ upstream *t(ɔ,o)t(ɔ,o) thorn *tu banana *tuma go *tV- one *tVdo illicit *u scar *ud(e,i) urine *ute grub *wæja left (hand) *weke
Proto-Elevala
Proto-Elevala reconstructions from Suter and Usher (2017):[2]
gloss Proto-Elevala hand, arm *a lie down *æ- sand *daNi give *dæ- flea *dideme meat *dinæ testicles *dipɔ crocodile *dope sap, juice *dɔdæ fingernail *d(ɔ,a)kæ see *dV- sugarcane *ga beak *ga sing *gi- gums *gine younger brother *gɔmɔde cut *gu stick *gum(ɔ,a) count *hiakV- breath *hine do, make *hɔmV- carry on head *i- stone *ike song *jɔkæ set on fire *kamV- leg *kate beetle *kiame thunder *kima(ti) nose *kine face *kiNɔ-namæ58 white *kɔnV-kaina59 coconut *kɔpɔkæ pig *mainæ head *mini below *moka fish *mone stem *moNæ what? *na cane mail shirt *napo charcoal *o drum *pi heavy *piena buttocks *po smell *pɔmæ bride price *puNe goanna *sɔNɔmæ yesterday *te sago thatch *temæ rattan *tike ground, earth *tɔ wild *tɔna
Vocabulary comparison
The following basic vocabulary words are from McElhanon & Voorhoeve (1970),[4] Shaw (1973),[5] and Shaw (1986),[6] as cited in the Trans-New Guinea database:[7]
gloss Pare Aekyom head keba; kiba pɔƀe hair osɛ; ouse tɛnɛ ear mogamɛ; mogo; mɔgɔ kɛndɔkɛ eye kere-mo; kinemo; kinemɔ krO-ŋɛ nose kene; kine koe tooth male; marɛ; pɛrɛ pʰɛtɛ tongue tɛ tiː leg tamakali louse kiba ʔo; kiba ʔɔ; ɔ huɔlɛ dog ti; til psane pig mele bird tie; tiye egg moʔo; mɔʔɔ blood sowo; sɔwɔ bone ko; kɔ kro skin sia; siga; siya kare breast bu tutɛ tree i̧; ĩ de; doe man kobo woman wigi sun gẽnɛ̃; gine toe moon abi water mɔa; omɛ; ɔmɔɛ; ume waɛ fire ne; nɛ de; doe stone iebɔ; iyebo road, path utigi tɛnɛ name hi hi eat da; denu; de-nu də one oteso; ɔtesɔ two diyabo; diyabɔ String Bag dissa; disaɔ
Evolution
Proposed Awin–Pa reflexes of proto-Trans-New Guinea (pTNG) etyma:[8]
- kendoke ‘ear’ < *kand(e,i)k[V]
- khatike ‘leg’ < *k(a,o)
- ndok[V], kare ‘skin’ < *(ŋg,k)a(nd,t)apu
- di ‘firewood, fire’ < *inda
- keba ‘head’ < *kV(mb,p)(i,u)tu
- ama ‘mother < *am(a,i)
- di- ‘burn’ < *nj(a,e,i)
Loanwords
Kamula and Doso
Loanwords between Kamula and Doso:[2]
No. Kamula Doso Turumsa 1 'father' [a:] 'father' [a:] 'father' 2 'mother' ['wai] 'mother' ['wai] 'mother' 3 'older brother' ['bapa] 'older brother' 4 'older sister' ['nana] 'older sister' 5 'blood' ['omari] 'blood' 6 'stomach' [kù'ko] 'belly (outside)' 7 'wallaby' [ka'pia] 'wallaby' [kapia] 'wallaby' 8 'cassowary' [wa:taɾa] 'cassowary' [wa:taɾa] 'cassowary' 9 'cloud' ['waɾa] 'cloud' 10 'sand' ['asiɾa] 'sand'
Aekyom and Ok
Aekyom loanwords from Ok languages:[2]
No. Aekyom Mountain Ok Lowland Ok 1 [mon] 'rubbish' *mɔːn 'rubbish, compost' 2 [ɺoŋ] 'garden newly felled' *ɾaŋg 'garden' *joŋg 'garden' 3 [khno] 'canoe' *kono 'canoe' 4 [ambum(e)] 'turtle' *ambɔːm 'turtle species' *ambom 'turtle' 5 [khwiɺe] 'hornbill' *kaweːɾ 'Papuan hornbill' *kaweɾ 'hornbill' 6 [ubine] 'rhinoceros beetle' *umiːn 'rhinoceros beetle' 7 [mom] 'nephew, maternal' *mɔːm 'mother's brother' *mom 'mother's brother' 8 [ahwoe] 'grandmother' *ap(e,o)ːk 'grandmother' *apok 'grandmother' 9 [khendoke] 'outer ear' *kindɔːŋg 'inner ear' *kende 'ear' 10 [mgat-ɺam] 'in the mouth' *maŋgat 'mouth, chin' *maŋgot 'mouth'
Kamula and Aramia River
Kamula loanwords from Aramia River languages:[2]
No. Kamula Waruna Gogodala 1 'taro' [bibi] 'taro' [bibi] 'taro' 2 'yam' [waisa] 'yam' 3 'canoe' [gwawa] 'canoe' [gawa] 'canoe' 4 'paddle, oar' [keari] 'paddle' [keari] 'paddle' 5 'chicken' [kakaba] 'fowl' 6 'breadfruit' [kawaki] 'breadfruit'
Kamula–Elevala and Awyu–Dumut
Potential cognates between Kamula–Elevala and Awyu–Dumut (Healey 1970[9]):[2]
- Abbreviations
- pAD = proto-Awyu–Dumut
- pA = proto-Awyu
- pD = proto-Dumut
- pKE = proto-Kamula–Elevala
- pK = proto-Kamula
- pE = proto-Elevala
Awyu–Dumut (Healey 1970) Kamula–Elevala pAD *dat- 'hear' pKE *dade- 'hear' pAD *do- 'be cooked' pKE *du- 'burn, cook' pAD *ɛdex- 'give' pE *dæ- 'give' pAD *füp 'name' pKE *hi 'name' pAD *göp 'you (sg.)' pE *go 'you (sg.)' pAD *ket 'flower' Pa [ke] 'blossom' pAD *mak 'shoulder' pKE *makæ 'shoulder' pAD *nop 'I' pE *nɔ 'I' pAD *or 'excreta, intestines' Kamula /o/ 'abdomen, belly' pAD *xaiban 'head' Pa [keba] 'head' pAD *xop 'male, man' pKE *kopo 'man' pAD *yin 'tree, wood, fire' Pa [ẽ] 'tree' pA *bu 'buttocks' pE *po 'buttocks' pA *dübe, *dübi 'island' Aekyom [dupi] 'island' pA *düb(-ro) 'heart' Kamula 'heart' pA *makan, *mokan 'low, beneath' pE *moka 'below' pA *midi(n) 'thigh' pKE *madina 'thigh' pA *wün 'liver' Pa [wumɛ] 'liver' pA *xui(-to) 'sky' Aekyom [khwoe] 'sky, heaven' pD *ba- 'sit' pKE *pV- 'sit' pD *kumöt 'thunder' pE *kima(ti) 'thunder'
References
- 1 2 3 4 New Guinea World, Digul River – Ok
- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Suter, Edgar; Usher, Timothy (2017). "The Kamula-Elevala Language Family". Language & Linguistics in Melanesia. Port Moresby: Journal of the Linguistic Society of Papua New Guinea. 35. ISSN 0023-1959.
- ↑ Edgar Suter & Timothy Usher (2017) "The Kamula–Elevala language family", Language and Linguistics in Melanesia 35: 106–131.
- ↑ McElhanon, K.A. and Voorhoeve, C.L. The Trans-New Guinea Phylum: Explorations in deep-level genetic relationships. B-16, vi + 112 pages. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 1970. doi:10.15144/PL-B16
- ↑ Shaw, R.D. "A Tentative Classification of the Languages of the Mt Bosavi Region". In Franklin, K. editor, The linguistic situation in the Gulf District and adjacent areas, Papua New Guinea. C-26:187-215. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 1973. doi:10.15144/PL-C26.187
- ↑ Shaw, R.D. "The Bosavi language family". In Laycock, D., Seiler, W., Bruce, L., Chlenov, M., Shaw, R.D., Holzknecht, S., Scott, G., Nekitel, O., Wurm, S.A., Goldman, L. and Fingleton, J. editors, Papers in New Guinea Linguistics No. 24. A-70:45-76. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 1986. doi:10.15144/PL-A70.45
- ↑ Greenhill, Simon (2016). "TransNewGuinea.org - database of the languages of New Guinea". Retrieved 2020-11-05.
- ↑ Pawley, Andrew; Hammarström, Harald (2018). "The Trans New Guinea family". In Palmer, Bill (ed.). The Languages and Linguistics of the New Guinea Area: A Comprehensive Guide. The World of Linguistics. Vol. 4. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton. pp. 21–196. ISBN 978-3-11-028642-7.
- ↑ Healey, Alan 1970. Proto-Awyu-Dumut phonology. In: Stephen A. Wurm and Donald C. Laycock (eds). Pacific Linguistic studies in honour of Arthur Capell. (PL C-13). Canberra: Pacific Linguistics. 997-1063.
- Ross, Malcolm (2005). "Pronouns as a preliminary diagnostic for grouping Papuan languages". In Andrew Pawley; Robert Attenborough; Robin Hide; Jack Golson (eds.). Papuan pasts: cultural, linguistic and biological histories of Papuan-speaking peoples. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics. pp. 15–66. ISBN 0858835622. OCLC 67292782.
External links
- Timothy Usher, New Guinea World, Proto–Digul River – Ok
- Usher & Suter, Proto–Kamula – Elevala River
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