| Ok | |
|---|---|
| Geographic distribution | New Guinea |
| Linguistic classification | Trans–New Guinea |
| Proto-language | Proto-Ok |
| Glottolog | okok1235 |
 Map: The Oksapmin languages of New Guinea
The Oksapmin languages
Other Trans–New Guinea languages
Other Papuan languages
Austronesian languages
Uninhabited | |
The Ok languages are a family of about a dozen related Trans–New Guinea languages spoken in a contiguous area of eastern Irian Jaya and western Papua New Guinea. The most numerous language is Ngalum, with some 20,000 speakers; the best known is probably Telefol.
The Ok languages have dyadic kinship terms.[2]
History of classification
The Ok languages are clearly related. Alan Healey identified them as a family in 1962. He later noted connections with the Asmat languages and Awyu–Dumut families (Healey 1970).
Voorhoeve developed this into a Central and South New Guinea (CSNG) proposal. As part of CSNG, the Ok languages form part of the original proposal for Trans–New Guinea, a position tentatively maintained by Malcolm Ross, though reduced nearly to Healey's original conception. Ross states that he cannot tell if the similarities in CSNG are shared innovations or retentions from proto-TNG. Voorhoeve argues specifically for an Awyu–Ok relationship, and Foley believes that these two families may be closest to Asmat among the TNG languages.
Loughnane and Fedden (2011)[3] claim to have demonstrated that the erstwhile TNG isolate Oksapmin is related to the Ok family. However, this has not been generally accepted because loans from Mountain Ok have not been accounted for.
Van den Heuvel & Fedden (2014) argue that Greater Awyu and Greater Ok are not genetically related, but that their similarities are due to intensive contact.[4]
Languages
The languages are:
- Ok
Reconstruction
| Proto-Ok | |
|---|---|
| Reconstruction of | Ok languages |
Reconstructed ancestors | |
Phonology
The following are consonants of Proto-Ok:[5]
| Bilabial | Alveolar | Palatal | Velar | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| plain | labialized | |||||
| Nasal | *m | *n | ||||
| Plosive | plain | *p | *t | *k | *kʷ | |
| prenasalized | *ᵐb | *ⁿd | *ⁿdz | *ᵑɡ | *ᵑɡʷ | |
| Fricative | *s | |||||
| Semivowel | *w | *j | ||||
| Rhotic | *ɾ | |||||
Vowels may be /*iː *ʉ *uː *e *a *o/, but this reconstruction may be biased toward Telefol.
Pronouns
Healey & Ross reconstruct the pronouns of proto-Ok are as follows:
m.sg f.sg pl 1 *na- *nu[b], *ni[b] 2 *ka-b- *ku-b- *ki[b] 3 *ya *yu *[y]i
Usher (2020) reconstructs the independent pronouns as,[5]
m.sg f.sg pl 1ex *ne *nu 1in *nu-p 2 *ke-p *ku-p *ki-p 3 *e *u *i [3pl.in *i-p]
and the subject suffixes as,
m.sg f.sg pl 1 *-i *-up 2 *-ep *-ip 3 *-e/*-o *-u
Evolution
Proto-Mountain Ok reflexes of proto-Trans-New Guinea (pTNG) etyma, as quoted by Pawley & Hammarström (2018) from Healey (1964):[6][7]
- *beːn ‘arm’ < *mbena
- *mburuŋ ‘fingernail’ < *mb(i,u)t(i,u)C
- *katuun ‘knee’ < *(ng,k)atVk
- *maŋkat ‘mouth’ < *maŋgat[a]
- *gitak ‘neck’ < *k(a,e)ndak
- *kum ‘side of neck’ < *kuma(n,ŋ)
- *mutuum ‘nose’ < *mundu
- *falaŋ ‘tongue’ < *mbilaŋ
- *kaliim ‘moon’ < *kal(a,i)m
Lexicon
Usher (2020)
Some lexical reconstructions by Usher (2020) are:[5]
gloss Proto-Ok Proto-West Ok Ngalum Proto-Central Ok Proto-Lowland Ok Proto-Mountain Ok head *ambo[t] *amb[o/u][t] *ambo *ŋgambɔːm hair/feather *kam[y][ː]R *kamu kamil *kep *kami ? *karíːm (metathesis) ear *kindoːŋg *kireŋg siroŋ *kiroŋg *kende *kìroːŋ eye *kiː[n/nd][i] *k[i]ri sir *kit *kin(-jop) *kìːn nose *mitoR *mete misol *m[i]t[o] *mitu *mít tooth *niːŋgiR niŋil *niŋgi *niŋgi *níːŋg tongue *poːŋg; *pir[a/o]ŋg *[p]iraŋg aploŋ *poŋg *poŋg *póːŋg; *piráŋg foot/leg *j[aː/oː]n *jan jon *jon *jon *jàːn blood/red *r[aː/eː]m lam *jam *rèːm bone *kundo[ː]R *kuro kulol *koro *kondo *kún skin *kaːnd *kat kal *kat *kar *kàːr breast *muːk *muk muk *muk *muk *múːk louse *kuwimb *k[uwi]p sip *kuwip *kuwim *kìm dog *ano[ː]n *anan anon *anon *anon *majaːn pig *kowaŋg *kuwoŋg kaŋ *koŋg *kowaŋg *k[àː/òː]ŋg bird *n[a/o][ː]r[t] *no[r]t nal *noe *on *awɔːn egg *windin *win wirin *wirin *windi *wín tree/fire *andz *a a *a *ar (? *andz) *às man *ka-tup woman *wVnVŋg wanaŋ *kur 'woman/wife' *w[o]noŋg *wàn[é/á]ŋg sun *at[aː/oː]n *atan aton *at[a/o]n *aton *átàːn moon *wakor *ukot ukol *ukoe *w[o]kor *wàkár water *oːk *ok ok *ok *ok *òːk fire/spark *asi[n/ŋg] *asin asiŋg *asi[n/ŋg] *awop *weⁱŋg 'fire' stone *tuːm *tum tum *tum *tum *túːm path *[nd/j][y]jip *ɾeⁱp name *[a]niŋg[o]R; *wini *iniŋg niŋil *wini *[a]niŋgo *wín eat *en- 'eat/drink' *ane- *wan 'eat/drink' one *muwim 'one/all' *mowim two *pajop, *[p]aɾop *asʉ; *aɾe̞ːp
Loughnane and Fedden (2011)
Proto-Ok-Oksapmin reconstructions from Loughnane and Fedden (2011):[3]
gloss proto-Ok-Oksapmin appetizer *imin arrow type *(w)Vn; *xanaat ashes *kip ask *daxa at (place) *kal and, with *soo bandicoot variety *kajaal bat variety *jVwVm be, stay *p(iː); *(i)n bird-of-paradise *xoloom bird variety *aleem; *ilnem blood *xeim blunt (of e.g. knife) *fiim break, dislocate (bone) *doxo burn / light fire *xVl casuarina tree *dVtVp chest (bone) *tVVb cockroach *tanoom cold *giil collar bone *kʷiŋ crumbs *bVVl cucumber *kimVd cut (hair), shave (hair) *pida- dirty (of water) *miim do / make *xV- dog *mVjaan domestic pig *kVŋ down, below *daak dry *xV(V)x eagle, eagle variety *boxVl emphatic pronoun marker *-xVp enemy *maxaw enough *kii excrement *Vl eye *kiin fern *abal fish *aniiŋ frog variety *siilsiil fruit *dVm garden *(i)laŋ greedy, selfish *ilek headman, leader *kVmoxVm heart *bVpVl heavy *iluum hornbill *xawel house post *(V)bVk husk (of nut) *(w)VVm in, hole *tem itchy *abaalabaal kidney *gV(V)l(V)(p) knee *katVVn kookaburra *k(V)lVx light (weight) *fVVŋ little finger *xatxat magic *kusem molar / tooth *aga(k) moon *kajoop mosquito *gimgim name *win nasal mucus *iin neck, throat *gʷel needle *sVl nettle variety *waan nose *(mu)duum no! *bV(V)s(V) old *pVsel pancreas *kʷVVn part of floor *dixim penis *eit point, tip *puut poor *bVlVp possum variety *sopim pregnant *gVpVn pronged bird arrow *geim pus *isax rain shower *sox roundworm *kasen salt (traded from Oksapmin) *eip same as, like *tap seedling / plant / container *san sharp *atVl fed up with *gaal sit with feet and legs together *goptV(V) small mammal *nVVg snake / snake variety *inap sorcery *kimon spark *tVtup squash *sof(l)it; *sVko story *saŋ sugarcane *kʷeit sun *ataan sweet, tasty *xabaal taboo *awem temporary *(ka)kuun thin *daŋ tobacco *suux tongue *fV(lV)ŋ top / bottom of taro *dVm trap *abil self, reflexive *xol urine *imaan vein *mamel vomit *usaan warm *mVmVn wasp *VVm white cockatoo *nama wild pig *saamVVn wind *inim yellow *xop; *kitax child *mVVn father.1POSS1 *at(umon) father.3POSS *VVlap in-law.1POSS *baad man's sister *bVVp uncle.1POSS *mV(V)m(ein) younger brother *VnVVŋ husband and wife *agam mother and children *Vbdil
Further reading
- Proto-Ok-Oksapmin. TransNewGuinea.org. From Loughnane, R. & Fedden, S. 2011. Is Oksapmin Ok?—A Study of the Genetic Relationship between Oksapmin and the Ok Languages. Australian Journal of Linguistics 31:1, 1-42.
References
- Citations
- ↑ New Guinea World, Digul River – Ok
- ↑ The Oksapmin Kinship System Archived 2009-09-20 at the Wayback Machine, retrieved May 21, 2009.
- 1 2 Loughnane, Robyn; Fedden, Sebastian (2011). "Is Oksapmin Ok?—A Study of the Genetic Relationship between Oksapmin and the Ok Languages" (PDF). Australian Journal of Linguistics. 31 (1): 1–42. doi:10.1080/07268602.2011.533635. S2CID 58263200.
- ↑ van den Heuvel, Wilco; Fedden, Sebastian (2014). "Greater Awyu and Greater Ok: Inheritance or Contact?". Oceanic Linguistics. 53 (1): 1–36. doi:10.1353/ol.2014.0008. JSTOR 43286368. S2CID 145456028.
- 1 2 3 NewGuineaWorld, Ok
- ↑ Pawley, Andrew; Hammarström, Harald (2018). "The Trans New Guinea family". In Palmer, Bill (ed.). The Languages and Linguistics of the New Guinea Area: A Comprehensive Guide. The World of Linguistics. Vol. 4. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton. pp. 21–196. ISBN 978-3-11-028642-7.
- ↑ Healey, Alan (1964). The Ok language family in New Guinea (PhD thesis). Australian National University. doi:10.25911/5d76387c2d8aa. hdl:1885/10871.
- Sources
- Ross, Malcolm (2005). "Pronouns as a preliminary diagnostic for grouping Papuan languages". In Andrew Pawley; Robert Attenborough; Robin Hide; Jack Golson (eds.). Papuan pasts: cultural, linguistic and biological histories of Papuan-speaking peoples. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics. pp. 15–66. ISBN 0858835622. OCLC 67292782.
External links
- Timothy Usher, New Guinea World, Proto–Digul River – Ok
- (ibid.) Proto-Ok (see also reconstructions of individual branches)
- Healey, Alan. (1964). The Ok Language Family in New Guinea
- Steer, Martin. (2005). Languages of the Upper Sepik and Central New Guinea