Russian disinformation campaigns have occurred in many countries.[1][2] For example, disinformation campaigns led by Yevgeny Prigozhin have been reported in several African countries.[3][4] Russia, however, denies that it uses disinformation to influence public opinion.[5]

Background

During the Cold War, the Soviet Union used propaganda and disinformation as "active measures...against the populations of Western nations".[6]: 51  During the administration of Boris Yeltsin, the first President of Russia after the collapse of the Soviet Union, "disinformation" was discussed in the Russian media and by Russian politicians in relation to the disinformation of the Soviet era, and to differentiate Boris Yeltsin's new Russia from its Soviet predecessor.[7]

It is especially important to introduce geopolitical disorder into internal American activity, encouraging all kinds of separatism and ethnic, social and racial conflicts, actively supporting all dissident movements – extremist, racist, and sectarian groups, thus destabilizing internal political processes in the U.S.

Aleksandr Dugin, The Basics of Geopolitics, (1997), translation by John B. Dunlop[8]

In the post-Yeltsin era, Russian disinformation has been described as a key tactic in the military doctrine of Russia.[5] Its use has increased since 2000 under Vladimir Putin, particularly after the 2008 Russian invasion of Georgia. This style of disinformation propaganda has been described as a "firehose of falsehood" by observers due to its high number of channels and willingness to disseminate outright falsehoods, to the point of inconsistency. It differs from Soviet-era disinformation tactics in its use of the internet, claimed amateur journalism, and social media.[9]

Debunking Russian disinformation

The European Union and NATO both set up special units to analyze and debunk falsehoods.[5] NATO founded a modest facility in Latvia to respond to disinformation.[1] An agreement by heads of state and governments in March 2015 let the EU create the European External Action Service East Stratcom Task Force, which publishes weekly reports on its website "EU vs Disinfo."[10] The website and its partners identified and debunked more than 3,500 pro-Kremlin disinformation cases between September 2015 and November 2017.[10]

In 2016, the US government established the Global Engagement Center (GEC) as an agency within the United States Department of State to counter foreign propaganda efforts.[11][12]

When explaining the 2016 annual report of the Swedish Security Service on disinformation, spokesman Wilhelm Unge stated: "We mean everything from Internet trolls to propaganda and misinformation spread by media companies like RT and Sputnik."[5] RT and Sputnik were created to focus on Western audiences and function by Western standards, and RT tends to focus on how problems are the fault of Western countries.[13] Russia's television outlet RT (formerly known as Russia Today) and the Sputnik news agency are state-sponsored media.[5][2]

Social media platforms and the internet

As social media gained prominence in the 2010s, Russia began to use platforms such as Facebook, Twitter, and YouTube to spread disinformation. Russian web brigades and bots, typically operated by Russia's Internet Research Agency (IRA), were commonly used to disseminate disinformation throughout these social media channels.[14] In late 2017 Facebook estimated that as many as 126 million of its users had seen content from Russian disinformation campaigns on its platform.[15] Twitter stated that it had found 36,000 Russian bots spreading tweets related to the 2016 U.S. elections.[16] Russia has used social media to destabilize former Soviet states such as Ukraine and Western nations such as France and Spain.[17]

In 2020, the US State Department identified several "proxy sites" used by Russian state actors "to create and amplify false narratives." These sites include the Strategic Culture Foundation, New Eastern Outlook, Crimea-based news agency NewsFront and SouthFront, a website targeted at "military enthusiasts, veterans, and conspiracy theorists."[18]

Internet Research Agency

Poster and text from Mueller Report about 2016 rallies organized by Russia's Internet Research Agency

Following the Snow Revolution protests against the outcomes of the 2011 Russian legislative election organized by several persons, including Pussy Riot, Anton Nossik, and Alexei Navalny, who used Facebook, Twitter, and LiveJournal blogs to organize the events, Vyacheslav Volodin, who was Deputy Prime Minister at the time and later became First Deputy Chief of Staff of the Presidential Administration of Russia and was responsible for domestic policy, was tasked with countering these efforts and began to rein in the internet using Prisma (Russian: «Призма») which "actively tracks the social media activities that result in increased social tension, disorderly conduct, protest sentiments and extremis" by monitoring in real time from more than 60 million feeds about the protesters discussions on blogs and social networks and perform social media tracking which later led to establishing the Internet Research Agency.[19][20][21] Nossik claimed that the Twitter fueled events in 2009 in Moldova known as the Twitter Revolution and the events of Arab Spring, which Igor Sechin blamed Google for masterminding the revolution in Egypt, were not as devastating to Putin as the events of the Snow Revolution during 2011-2012.[21] Putin announced on 24 April 2014 that numerous laws would be enacted to restrict freedoms of expression on the internet through Orwellian censorship and were signed into law by Vladimir Putin on 5 May 2014 with enforcement beginning on 1 August 2014, according to Nossik.[21]

Twelve of the thirteen Russian nationals indicted by Robert Mueller for conspiracy meddling in the 2016 US Presidential Election were employees of the Internet Research Agency, based in St. Petersburg, Russia.[22][23][24][lower-alpha 1][lower-alpha 2][lower-alpha 3] In the runup to and during the 2020 U.S. presidential election, Russia's Internet Research Agency (IRA) demonstrated evolved tactics for spreading disinformation. Probably to evade the detection mechanisms of social media platforms, the IRA co-opted activists working for a human-rights focused Ghanaian NGO to target black communities in the U.S.[32] Russian campaigns have also evolved to become more cross-platform, with content spreading, not only on Facebook and Twitter, but also on Tumblr, Wordpress, and Medium.[33] The IRA is also more emboldened, with evidence that they recruited U.S. journalists to write articles critical of U.S. presidential candidate Joe Biden.[34]

Russian Institute for Strategic Studies

During both the 2016 and the 2020 elections, the Russian Institute for Strategic Studies (RISI) or (RISS) or (RISY) (Russian: Российский институт стратегических исследований (РИСИ)) was integral to disinformation efforts from Putin and the Kremlin. During the 2016 elections, Leonid Reshetnikov headed RISI and during the 2020 elections Mikhail Fradkov headed RISI.[35][36] During the 2016 presidential election, George Papadopoulos met several times with Panos Kammenos who had numerous close ties to Russian intelligence, Vladimir Putin and the Kremlin group tasked with interfering in the 2016 United States elections.[37][38][39] Kammenos formed the Athens-based Institute of Geopolitical Studies which in November 2014 signed a "memorandum of understanding" with the former SVR officer Reshetnikov who headed RISI.[40] In 2009, RISI, which had been an SVR operation, was placed under control of the Russian president with Reshetnikov regularly meeting with Putin and participated in Russian interference in the 2016 United States elections by developing plans of action: for example, with Russian intelligence assets and using a large disinformation campaign, Putin would support Republicans and the Trump campaign and disrupt Democrats and the Clinton campaign, and, if Trump were likely to lose the 2016 election, then Russia would shift its efforts to focus upon voter fraud in the United States in order to undermine the legitimacy of the United States electoral system and the elections.[40][41] Kammenos' positions followed closely with the Kremlin's talking points.[38]

Johan Backman supports RISI's interests in Northern Europe.[42]

Russia's numerous disinformation attacks including support for white supremist activities and attacks of Biden's mental fitness were utilized by Donald Trump, senior Trump Administration officials, and his re-election campaign.[43][44][45][46] Brian Murphy, who was acting chief of intelligence at the Department of Homeland Security from March 2018 until August 2020, said that he was instructed "to cease providing intelligence assessments on the threat of Russian interference in the United States, and instead start reporting on interference activities by China and Iran."[45][46][47] Chad Wolf, who was acting secretary of the Department of Homeland Security, said that Robert O'Brien, who was President Trump's national security advisor, had the assessments of Russian interference suppressed.[48] John Cohen, who was under secretary of intelligence at the Department of Homeland Security during Barack Obama's presidency, stated "By blocking information from being released that describes threats facing the nation... undermines the ability of the public and state and local authorities to work with the federal government to counteract the threat."[43]

Conservative media

Lev Parnas, Igor Fruman, Yuriy Lutsenko, John Solomon, Dmytro Firtash and his allies, Victoria Toensing and Joe diGenova were noted in a Fox News internal report Ukraine, Disinformation, & the Trump Administration: a Full Timeline of Events, which was written by Fox News senior political affairs specialist Bryan S. Murphy and made public by Marcus DiPaola,[lower-alpha 4] as indispensable "in the collection and domestic publication of elements of this disinformation campaign" and numerous falsehoods.[49][50][51][52][53][54][55]

On 3 February 2022, John "Jack" Hanick, who helped established the Konstantin Malofeev owned Tsargrad TV in 2015, allegedly was working to establish similar networks in Greece and Bulgaria, and worked at Fox News as a founding producer and news director from 1996 to 2011, was arrested in London for violating sanctions against Malofeev.[56][57][58][59][60][61][lower-alpha 5] Hanick was the first person criminally indicted for violating United States sanctions during the Russo-Ukrainian War.[63]

During the Russo-Ukrainian War, Russian state TV channel Russia-1 has used Tucker Carlson interviews on Fox News to support the Kremlin's objectives in Ukraine. Carlson's interview with the pro-Russia Retired Colonel Doug Macgregor was aired on Russia-1 to demoralize Ukraine.[64] Another interview by Carlson of Tulsi Gabbard, who often appears on Fox News as a guest, was shown on Russia-1 to support the Kremlin's position in which Gabbard said "President Biden could end this crisis and prevent a war with Russia by doing something very simple: guaranteeing that Ukraine will not become a member of NATO, because if Ukraine became a member of NATO, that would put U.S. and NATO troops directly on the doorstep of Russia, which — as Putin has laid out — would undermine their national security." Russia-1 removed parts of the interview before Gabbard said, "The reality is that it is highly, highly unlikely that Ukraine will ever become a member of NATO anyway."[65] Additionally, numerous clips of Carlson have appeared on RT, which was formerly known as Russia Today or Rossiya Segodnya, that support the Kremlin's objectives.[65]

Against Ukraine

This section is an excerpt from Russian information war against Ukraine.[edit]
The building of TASS, a Russian state-owned news agency accused of propaganda against Ukraine.

The Russian information war against Ukraine was first articulated by Valery Gerasimov in 2013.[66][67][68] He believed that Western governments were instigating color revolutions and the Arab Spring, which posed a threat to Russia.[69] Gerasimov's definition reflected his belief in Western involvement in these events, particularly the 2011–2013 Russian protests.

The concept of "Informatsionnaya voyna" (Russian: информационная война, lit. 'Informational war') encompasses various strategies, including cyberwarfare, often described as technical defenses against technical attacks in warfare.[70] However, cyberwarfare is just one aspect of Russia's information war, which may include controlling undersea communication cables, shaping national narratives, manipulating the news cycle, and flooding the information space with Russian bots and trolls. The goal is to achieve strategic victory and exert reflexive control.[71][72] These efforts were used during the 2022 Russian escalation of its war in Ukraine.

Due to effective censorship, most media outlets in Russia are government-controlled, allowing Kremlin messaging to successfully sway the citizens of the Russian Federation to support its approach in Ukraine.[73] The Kremlin has denied waging war in Ukraine, claiming it only wants to protect Russian speakers against Ukrainian Nazis.[74] This narrative has been reinforced by Russian television for eight years, giving it an advantage through repetition and familiarity.[75] According to a recent poll, 58 percent of Russians approved of this perspective between February 28 and March 3.[75]

Ukraine also communicates with its population, as well as other governments and populationa, portrays itself as resilient and fearless but in need of weapons.[76] Ukraine's online propaganda largely focuses on its heroes and martyrs, using their stories to emphasize Ukrainian fortitude and Russian aggression.[77] Additionally, Ukraine's strategy includes employing comedy[78] and promoting skepticism towards Russian narratives.[79][80]

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ The indicted individuals are Dzheykhun Nasimi Ogly Aslanov, Anna Vladislavovna Bogacheva, Maria Anatolyevna Bovda, Robert Sergeyevich Bovda, Mikhail Leonidovich Burchik, Mikhail Ivanovich Bystrov, Irina Viktorovna Kaverzina, Aleksandra Yuryevna Krylova, Vadim Vladimirovich Podkopaev, Sergey Pavlovich Polozov, Yevgeny Viktorovich Prigozhin, Gleb Igorevitch Vasilchenko, and Vladimir Venkov.[25] All of the defendants are charged with conspiracy to defraud the United States, 3 are charged with conspiracy to commit wire fraud and bank fraud, and 5 defendants are charged with aggravated identity theft. None of the defendants are in custody.[26]
  2. ↑ The Internet Research Agency's American Department was headed by Jeykhun Aslanov, an Azerbaijani who, in October 2017, was 27. Maria Bovda was the previous head of the American Department.[27][28][29] In 2019, TV Rain reported that others working in the Foreign Department included Katarina Aistova, Aistova's second assistant Maxim Elfimov, and Agata Burdonova who is an excellent English speaker that moved to Bellevue, Washington on 7 December 2017, obtained a United States social security number and has her own YouTube channel.[29][30]
  3. ↑ In October 2018 Russian accountant Elena Khusyaynova was charged with interferеnce in the 2016 and 2018 US elections. She is alleged to have been working with the IRA. She was said to have managed a $16 million budget.[31]
  4. ↑ The briefing book Ukraine, Disinformation, & the Trump Administration: a Full Timeline of Events by Bryan S. Murphy was first made public by Marcus J. DiPaola. DiPaola was employed by Fox News for three years and was a former freelance producer. DiPaola claims that after he provided information to the Federal Bureau of Investigation in January 2019, Fox News let him go under unusual circumstances.[49][50][51][52]
  5. ↑ Through Malofeev, Hanick is close to the pro Russia former Greek defense minister Panos Kammenos and Vladimir Putin gives carte blanche to Tsargrad TV which according to Malofeev is the Russian equivalent to Fox News.[62]

References

  1. 1 2 Anne Applebaum; Edward Lucas (6 May 2016), "The danger of Russian disinformation", The Washington Post, retrieved 9 December 2016
  2. 1 2 "Russian state-sponsored media and disinformation on Twitter". ZOiS Spotlight. Retrieved 16 September 2020.
  3. ↑ "Russian Disinformation Is Taking Hold in Africa". CIGI. 17 November 2021. Retrieved 3 March 2022. The Kremlin's effectiveness in seeding its preferred vaccine narratives among African audiences underscores its wider concerted effort to undermine and discredit Western powers by pushing or tapping into anti-Western sentiment across the continent.
  4. ↑ "Leaked documents reveal Russian effort to exert influence in Africa". The Guardian. 11 June 2019. Retrieved 3 March 2022. The mission to increase Russian influence on the continent is being led by Yevgeny Prigozhin, a businessman based in St Petersburg who is a close ally of the Russian president, Vladimir Putin. One aim is to 'strong-arm' the US and the former colonial powers the UK and France out of the region. Another is to see off 'pro-western' uprisings, the documents say.
  5. 1 2 3 4 5 MacFarquharaug, Neil (28 August 2016), "A Powerful Russian Weapon: The Spread of False Stories", The New York Times, p. A1, retrieved 9 December 2016, Moscow adamantly denies using disinformation to influence Western public opinion and tends to label accusations of either overt or covert threats as 'Russophobia.'
  6. ↑ McGeehan, Timothy P. (2018). "Countering Russian Disinformation". Parameters. 48 (1): 11. Retrieved 25 February 2022.
  7. ↑ Tolz, Vera; Hutchings, Stephen (8 October 2021). "Performing disinformation: a muddled history and its consequences". LSE blogs. Retrieved 12 April 2022.
  8. ↑ John Dunlop (January 2004). "Aleksandr Dugin's Foundations of Geopolitics" (PDF). Demokratizatsiya. 12 (1): 41. Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 June 2016. 'It is especially important,' Dugin adds, 'to introduce geopolitical disorder into internal American activity, encouraging all kinds of separatism and ethnic, social and racial conflicts, actively supporting all dissident movements--extremist, racist, and sectarian groups, thus destabilizing internal political processes in the U.S.'
  9. ↑ Paul, Christopher; Matthews, Miriam (11 July 2016). "The Russian "Firehose of Falsehood" Propaganda Model". Perspective. RAND Corporation.
  10. 1 2 "EU vs Disinfo". EU vs Disinfo. European External Action Service East Stratcom Task Force. Archived from the original on 6 December 2017. Retrieved 3 December 2017.
  11. ↑ "S.2943 - National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2017", Congress.gov, Library of Congress, 23 December 2016, retrieved 29 December 2016
  12. ↑ "Global Engagement Center". United States Department of State. Retrieved 24 February 2022.
  13. ↑ Moore, Cerwyn (March 2019). "Russia and Disinformation". Centre for Research and Evidence on Security Threats. S2CID 202895613.
  14. ↑ Ajir, Media; Vailliant, Bethany (2018). "Russian Information Warfare: Implications for Deterrence Theory". Strategic Studies Quarterly. 12 (3): 70–89. ISSN 1936-1815. JSTOR 26481910.
  15. ↑ Ingram, David (30 October 2017). "Facebook says 126 million Americans may have seen Russia-linked political posts". Reuters. Retrieved 30 October 2020.
  16. ↑ "Russia Using Disinformation To 'Sow Discord In West,' Britain's Prime Minister Says". NPR.org. Retrieved 20 February 2018.
  17. ↑ "How Russia's Disinformation Campaign Could Extend Its Tentacles". NPR.org. Retrieved 20 February 2018.
  18. ↑ "GEC Special Report: August 2020: Pillars of Russia's Disinformation and Propaganda Ecosystem" (PDF). United States Department of State. 2020. Retrieved 8 March 2022. ..this report draws on publicly available reporting to provide an overview of Russia's disinformation and propaganda ecosystem...[which] is the collection of official, proxy, and unattributed communication channels and platforms that Russia uses to create and amplify false narratives.
  19. ↑ Chen, Adrian (2 June 2015). "The Agency: From a nondescript office building in St. Petersburg, Russia, an army of well-paid "trolls" has tried to wreak havoc all around the Internet — and in real-life American communities". New York Times. Archived from the original on 19 December 2019. Retrieved 24 March 2022.
  20. ↑ Бурибаев, Айдар (Buribaev, Aidar); Баданин, Роман (Badanin, Roman) (15 August 2012). "Как власти читают ваши блоги: расследование Forbes" [How authorities read your blogs: Forbes investigation]. Forbes (in Russian). Archived from the original on 20 August 2021. Retrieved 24 March 2022.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  21. 1 2 3 "Russia's First Blogger Reacts to Putin's Internet Crackdown". The New Republic. 15 May 2014. Archived from the original on 13 April 2022. Retrieved 13 April 2022.
  22. ↑ "Mueller indicts 13 Russian nationals over 2016 election interference". CNN. 17 February 2018. Retrieved 3 March 2022. According to the indictment, Prigozhin controlled Concord Catering, a group that funded the Internet Research Agency. By around September 2016, the indictment says, the Internet Research Agency's monthly budget for the project that included the US election interference operation exceeded 73 million Russian rubles, or over $1.25 million.
  23. ↑ "Exclusive: Putin's 'chef,' the man behind the troll factory". CNN. 17 October 2017. Retrieved 3 March 2022. The Internet Research Agency was based at 55 Savushkina Street in St. Petersburg before it officially ceased operations on December 28, 2016. But investigative journalist Andrei Zakharov, who works for the business media group RBC, says its work continues.
  24. ↑ Chen, Adrian (2 June 2015). "The Agency: From a nondescript office building in St. Petersburg, Russia, an army of well-paid 'trolls' has tried to wreak havoc all around the Internet – and in real-life American communities". The New York Times Magazine. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 3 June 2015.
  25. ↑ "Indictment in Mueller investigation, February 2018". Retrieved 31 July 2018.
  26. ↑ "Special counsel Mueller: Russians conducted 'information warfare' against US during election to help Donald Trump win". Cnbc.com. 16 February 2018. Retrieved 31 July 2018.
  27. ↑ "Американское блюдо фабрики Пригожина" [American dish factory Prigogine]. Rospres (in Russian). 17 October 2017. Archived from the original on 20 December 2019. Retrieved 19 December 2019.
  28. ↑ "Ольгинский тролль Агата Бурдонова вовремя предала Евгения Пригожина" [The Olginsky troll Agatha Burdonova betrayed Evgeny Prigozhin in time]. Rospres (in Russian). 26 February 2018. Archived from the original on 20 December 2019. Retrieved 19 December 2019.
  29. 1 2 Котляр, Евгения (Kotlyar, Evgenia) (24 February 2018). "Бывший менеджер иностранного отдела "фабрики троллей" переехала жить в США: Бывший дежурный менеджер иностранного отдела "Агентства интернет-исследований" ("фабрика троллей") Агата Бурдонова переехала в США. Об этом она рассказала на своей странице во "ВКонтакте"" [Former manager of the foreign department of the "troll factory" moved to the USA: Former duty manager of the foreign department of the Internet Research Agency ("troll factory") Agata Burdonova moved to the United States. She spoke about this on her page on VKontakte.]. TV Rain (in Russian). Archived from the original on 20 December 2019. Retrieved 19 December 2019.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  30. ↑ "Agata Burdonova YouTube channel". YouTube. Retrieved 24 March 2022.
  31. ↑ "Crimial Complaint against Elena Alekseevna Khusyaynova" (PDF). Eastern District of Virginia. 28 September 2018. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 March 2022. Retrieved 24 March 2022 – via CNN.
  32. ↑ "IRA in Ghana: Double Deceit". graphika.com. Retrieved 30 October 2020.
  33. ↑ Timberg, Craig. "Facebook removes Russian networks tied to intelligence services that interfered in the U.S. in 2016". Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. Retrieved 30 October 2020.
  34. ↑ Dwoskin, Elizabeth; Timberg, Craig. "Facebook takes down Russian operation that recruited U.S. journalists, amid rising concerns about election misinformation". Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. Retrieved 30 October 2020.
  35. ↑ Parker, Ned; Landay, Jonathan; Walcott, John (19 April 2017). "Putin-linked think tank drew up plan to sway 2016 US election - documents". Reuters. Retrieved 25 February 2022.
  36. ↑ Лагунина, Ирина (Lagunina, Irina); Маетная, Елизавета (Maternaya, Elizabeth) (20 April 2017). "Трамп и тайные документы Кремля" [Trump and secret documents of the Kremlin]. Радио Свобода (in Russian). Retrieved 25 February 2022.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  37. ↑ Κακαουνάκη, Μαριάννα (Kakaounaki, Marianna) (11 December 2016). "Η λευκή επιταγή του Τραμπ και ο ομογενής σύμβουλος" [The white check of Trump and the expatriate advisor]. Kathimerini (in Greek). Archived from the original on 22 September 2021. Retrieved 25 February 2022.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  38. 1 2 Stedman, Scott (4 November 2017). "Papadopoulos Met Numerous Times with Greek Leader with Substantial Ties to the Kremlin's 2016 US Interference Campaign". Medium (medium.com). Archived from the original on 4 November 2017. Retrieved 25 February 2022.
  39. ↑ Witte, Griff (10 December 2017). "For Trump adviser at center of Russia probe, a rapid rise and dramatic fall in his ancestral land". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 11 December 2017. Retrieved 25 February 2022.
  40. 1 2 Coalson, Robert (28 January 2015). "New Greek Government Has Deep, Long-Standing Ties With Russian 'Fascist' Dugin". Radio Free Europe. Retrieved 25 February 2022.
  41. ↑ Parker, Ned; Landay, Jonathan; Walcott, John (19 April 2017). "Putin-linked think tank drew up plan to sway 2016 US election - documents". Reuters. Archived from the original on 5 November 2017. Retrieved 25 February 2022.
  42. ↑ Higgins, Andrew (30 May 2016). "Effort to Expose Russia's 'Troll Army' Draws Vicious Retaliation". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 13 June 2017. Retrieved 13 April 2022.
  43. 1 2 Margolin, Josh; Bruggeman, Lucien; Steakin, Will; Karl, Jonathan (1 September 2020). "DHS withheld July intelligence bulletin calling out Russian attack on Biden's mental health: The Trump campaign has repeatedly engaged in a similar line of attack". ABC News. Archived from the original on 10 September 2020. Retrieved 4 March 2022.
  44. ↑ Barr, Luke (8 September 2020). "Russia spreading disinformation about Biden's mental health: DHS: A previously planned release was withheld by DHS". ABC News. Archived from the original on 10 September 2020. Retrieved 4 March 2022.
  45. 1 2 "Foreign Threats to the 2020 US Federal Elections" (PDF). National Intelligence Council (NIC). 10 March 2021. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 March 2021. Retrieved 4 March 2022.
  46. 1 2 Behrmann, Savannah (24 September 2020). "Acting DHS secretary: White supremacy is 'most persistent and lethal threat' internally to US". USA Today. Archived from the original on 24 September 2020. Retrieved 4 March 2022.
  47. ↑ Siegel, Benjamin; Margolin, Josh; Bruggeman, Lucien (9 September 2020). "Whistleblower details alleged politicization of intelligence at DHS: Complaint filed with watchdog includes claims of interference in intelligence". ABC News. Archived from the original on 10 September 2020. Retrieved 4 March 2022.
  48. ↑ Shesgreen, Deirdre; Wu, Nicholas (9 September 2020). "Intelligence whistleblower says he was pressured to downplay threats from Russia, white supremacists". USA Today. Archived from the original on 27 September 2020. Retrieved 4 March 2022.
  49. 1 2 Kalmbacher, Colin (6 February 2020). "Fox News Internal 'Briefing Book' Admits Rudy Giuliani Spreads 'Disinformation'". Law&Crime (lawandcrime.com). Archived from the original on 5 March 2022. Retrieved 4 March 2022. The document's existence was first made public by three-year Fox News veteran and former freelance producer Marcus DiPaola, who says he left the network under suspicious circumstances—after providing information to the Federal Bureau of Investigation—in January of last year.
  50. 1 2 Sommer, Will; Tani, Maxwell; Kirell, Andrew (6 February 2020). "Fox News Internal Document Bashes Pro-Trump Fox Regulars for Spreading 'Disinformation'". The Daily Beast. Archived from the original on 7 February 2020. Retrieved 4 March 2022.
  51. 1 2 DiPaola, Marcus J. (8 February 2020). "Here's the front page of the internal Fox News Trump-Ukraine timeline. I'll start tweeting some of the highlights shortly". Twitter. Archived from the original on 8 February 2020. Retrieved 4 March 2022. Based on a 9 December 2019 update of the document.
  52. 1 2 Keys, Matthew (6 February 2020). "Here's the full Fox News "Brain Room" book on Trump-connected "disinformation campaign"". The Desk. Archived from the original on 5 March 2022. Retrieved 4 March 2022. Based on a 9 December 2019 update of the document.
  53. ↑ O'Neil, Luke (7 February 2020). "Fox News guests spread 'disinformation' – says leaked internal memo: Among those named in document are frequent guests Rudy Giuliani, John Solomon, Victoria Toensing and Joe diGenova". The Guardian. Retrieved 4 March 2022.
  54. ↑ Falzone, Diana; Grove, Lloyd (28 September 2020). "Fox News Lobotomizes Its 'Brain Room,' Cuts Fact-Based Journalism: 'NOT INTERESTED IN FACTS.' Staffers said the recent layoffs gutting Fox News' fact-checking team were a victory for the network's right-wing opinion shows and further cemented its status as "state media."". The Daily Beast. Archived from the original on 17 February 2022. Retrieved 4 March 2022.
  55. ↑ Sisak, Michael R.; Balsamo, Michael; Tucker, Eric (28 April 2021). "Feds raid Giuliani's home, office, escalating criminal probe". Associated Press. Archived from the original on 15 February 2022. Retrieved 4 March 2022.
  56. ↑ Dugan, Kevin T. (3 March 2022). "Ex–Fox News Director Indicted for Working With Russian Oligarch". New York (nymag.com). Archived from the original on 24 March 2022. Retrieved 24 March 2022.
  57. ↑ "TV Producer for Russian Oligarch Charged with Violating Crimea-Related Sanctions". United States Department of Justice. 3 March 2022. Archived from the original on 3 March 2022. Retrieved 24 March 2022.
  58. ↑ Lahut, Jake (4 March 2022). "Ex-Fox News director indicted for allegedly helping a Russian oligarch start pro-Putin Tsargrad TV network: report". Business Insider. Archived from the original on 4 March 2022. Retrieved 24 March 2022.
  59. ↑ Shanahan, Ed; Weiser, Benjamin (3 March 2022). "Ex-Fox News Producer Broke Law With Work for Russian Oligarch, U.S. Says: John Hanick was on Konstantin Malofeev's payroll after Mr. Malofeev's backing of Crimean separatists led to sanctions, an indictment says". New York Times. Archived from the original on 25 March 2022. Retrieved 24 March 2022.
  60. ↑ Pagliery, Jose (3 March 2022). "Former Fox News Director Jack Hanick Indicted for Helping Russia: FOX HOLE. An American TV producer was arrested in London and now faces criminal charges for working with a sanctioned Russian billionaire. He used to work for Fox News". The Daily Beast. Archived from the original on 24 March 2022. Retrieved 24 March 2022.
  61. ↑ Dickinson, Tim (7 March 2022). "How a Former Fox News Director Landed in Jail for Pushing Putin Propaganda: He fell in love with Mother Russia — and an oligarch's gravy train. But a disregard for sanctions and lying to the FBI could land him in prison for years". Rolling Stone. Archived from the original on 25 March 2022. Retrieved 24 March 2022.
  62. ↑ Weaver, Courtney (16 October 2015). "God's TV, Russian style: Meet Konstantin Malofeev — the devout and fervently pro-Putin founder of Orthodox channel Tsargrad TV". Financial Times. Archived from the original on 14 December 2016. Retrieved 24 March 2022.
  63. ↑ Spocchia, Gino (8 March 2022). "Former Fox News director indicted for violating Crimea sanctions and helping Russian billionaire: Justice Department vows end to 'Russian aggression' with first Crimea-linked sanctions violation". The Independent. Archived from the original on 18 March 2022. Retrieved 24 March 2022.
  64. ↑ Reed, Brad (4 March 2022). "Russian state TV uses Tucker Carlson to "demoralize" Ukraine: Russian state TV uses clips of Tucker Carlson's favorite pro-Putin US colonel to 'demoralize' Ukraine". Salon. Archived from the original on 24 March 2022. Retrieved 24 March 2022.
  65. 1 2 Mackey (25 February 2022). "Russian TV Uses Tucker Carlson and Tulsi Gabbard to Sell Putin's War: Fox News clips of Tucker Carlson and Tulsi Gabbard trashing Ukraine and the Biden administration were a mainstay of news coverage this week on Russian state television". The Intercept. Retrieved 25 March 2022.
  66. ↑ Gerasimov, Valery (2013). "The value of science in prediction" (PDF). Military Review. Vol. 27. Military-Industrial Kurier.
  67. ↑ Galeotti, Mark (2018). "The mythical 'Gerasimov Doctrine' and the language of threat". Critical Studies on Security. 7 (2): 157–161. doi:10.1080/21624887.2018.1441623. S2CID 159811828.
  68. ↑ "I'm Sorry for Creating the 'Gerasimov Doctrine'". Foreign Policy. 5 March 2018. Retrieved 6 March 2018.
  69. ↑ What Is the ‘Technology of the Colour Revolutions,’ and Why Does It Occupy Such a Prominent Place in Russian Threat Perceptions?, Mitchell Binding. Canadian Military Journal, Volume 19, Number 4, Autumn 2019
  70. ↑ [Russia's Information Warfare: Exploring the Cognitive Dimension], Blagovest Tashev, PhD; Lieutenant Colonel Michael Purcell (Ret); and Major Brian McLaughlin (Ret). Marine Corps University, MCU Journal vol. 10, no. 2, Fall 2019 https://doi.org/10.21140/mcuj.2019100208 p.133
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  73. ↑ Manjoo, Farhad (2 March 2022). "Opinion: Putin No Longer Seems Like a Master of Disinformation". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 25 November 2022. Retrieved 14 November 2022.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
  74. ↑ Putin says he will 'denazify' Ukraine. Here's the history behind that claim, Miriam Berger. Washington Post, February 24, 2022
  75. 1 2 Don’t Sleep on Russian Information-War Capabilities: Indeed, the Ukraine invasion should galvanize U.S. investment in its own messaging infrastructure, Alyssa Demus and Christopher Paul. Defense One, April 5, 2022
  76. ↑ Russia renews attack on Mariupol, as Ukraine asks for weapons from U.S.: Zelenskyy, Pavel Polityuk and Natalia Zinets. Reuters, Glibal News, April 23, 2022
  77. ↑ "Fact and Mythmaking Blend in Ukraine's Information War". The New York Times. 3 March 2022. Retrieved 24 March 2022. The claims by Ukraine do not compare to the falsehoods being spread by Russia...Instead, Ukraine's online propaganda is largely focused on its heroes and martyrs, characters who help dramatize tales of Ukrainian fortitude and Russian aggression.
  78. ↑ As bombs fall on Ukraine, memes ridicule Russian aggression: People hiding from violence in subterranean shelters exchange jokes on their phones as a release from the darkness, Mansur Mirovalev. Al Jazeera, 10 Mar 2022
  79. ↑ Aliaksandrau, Andrei (15 December 2014). "Brave new war: The information war between Russia and Ukraine". Index on Censorship. 43 (4): 54–60. doi:10.1177/0306422014560963. S2CID 145000133. Ukrainian bloggers, social media activists and journalists are educating their audiences on how to identify fakes.
  80. ↑ Szostek, Joanna (2017). "Nothing Is True? The Credibility of News and Conflicting Narratives during "Information War" in Ukraine". The International Journal of Press/Politics. 23: 116–135. doi:10.1177/1940161217743258. S2CID 148835708. Retrieved 24 March 2022. The closeup study of news consumption in Ukraine at a time of 'information war' shows that individuals judge the credibility of narratives based on whether issues that matter to them are addressed, not only on whether particular 'facts' are likely to be genuine.
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