Thích Quảng Đức protesting the persecution of Buddhists by self-immolation on 11 June 1963.

The term self-immolation broadly refers to acts of altruistic suicide, otherwise the giving up of one's body in an act of sacrifice.[1] However, it most often refers specifically to autocremation, the act of sacrificing oneself by setting oneself on fire and burning to death.[2] It is typically used for political or religious reasons, often as a form of non-violent protest or in acts of martyrdom. It has a centuries-long recognition as the most extreme form of protest possible by humankind.[3]

Etymology

The English word immolation originally meant (1534) "killing a sacrificial victim; sacrifice" and came to figuratively mean (1690) "destruction, especially by fire". Its etymology was from Latin immolare "to sprinkle with sacrificial meal (mola salsa); to sacrifice" in ancient Roman religion.[4][5] In Mewar region of India it was called Jauwar to save the honour of women from invading armies.

Effects

Self-immolators frequently use accelerants before igniting themselves. This, combined with the self-immolators' refusal to protect themselves, can produce hotter flames and deeper, more extensive burns.[6] Self-immolation has been described as excruciatingly painful. Later the burns become severe, nerves are burnt and the self-immolator loses sensation at the burnt areas. Some self-immolators can die during the act from inhalation of toxic combustion products, hot air and flames.[7] The body has an inflammatory response to burnt skin which happens after 25% is burnt in adults. This response leads to blood and body fluid loss. If the self-immolator is not taken to a burn centre in less than four hours, they are more likely to die from shock. If no more than 80% of their body area is burnt and the self-immolator is younger than 40 years old, there is a survival chance of 50%. If the self-immolator has over 80% burns, the survival rate drops to 20%.[8]

History

The self-immolation (jauhar) of the Rajput women, during the Siege of Chittorgarh in 1568

Self-immolation is tolerated by some elements of Mahayana Buddhism and Hinduism, and it has been practiced for many centuries, especially in India, for various reasons, including jauhar, political protest, devotion, and renouncement. An example from mythology includes the practice of Sati when the Hindu goddess Parvati's incarnation of the same name (see also Daksayani) legendarily set herself on fire after her father insulted her in Daksha Yajna for having married Shiva, the ascetic god. Shiva, Parvati and their army of ghosts attacked Daksha's Yajna and destroyed the sacrifice and Shiva beheaded Daksha and killed Daksha. Later, Daksha was revived by him and Daksha Yajna was completed when Daksha apologized. Certain warrior cultures, such as those of the Charans and Rajputs, also practiced self-immolation.

There are several well-known examples from antiquity to modern times. Kalanos, also spelled Calanus (Ancient Greek: Καλανὸς)[9] (c. 398 – 323 BCE), was an ancient Indian gymnosophist,[10][11][12][13] and philosopher from Taxila[14] who accompanied Alexander the Great to Persis and later, after falling ill, self-immolated by entering into a pyre, in front of Alexander and his army. Diodorus Siculus called him Caranus (Ancient Greek: Κάρανος).[15]

Zarmanochegas was a monk of the Sramana tradition (possibly, but not necessarily a Buddhist) who, according to ancient historians such as Strabo and Dio Cassius, met Nicholas of Damascus in Antioch around 22 BC and burnt himself to death in Athens shortly thereafter.[16][17]

The monk Fayu (Chinese: 法羽) (d. 396) carried out the earliest recorded Chinese self-immolation.[18] He first informed the "illegitimate" prince Yao Xu (Chinese: 姚緒)—brother of Yao Chang who founded the non-Chinese Qiang state Later Qin (384–417)—that he intended to burn himself alive. Yao tried to dissuade Fayu, but he publicly swallowed incense chips, wrapped his body in oiled cloth, and chanted while setting fire to himself. The religious and lay witnesses were described as being "full of grief and admiration".

Following Fayu's example, many Buddhist monks and nuns have used self-immolation for political purposes. Based upon analysis of Chinese historical records from the 4th to the 20th centuries, some monks did offer their bodies in periods of relative prosperity and peace, but there is a "marked coincidence" between acts of self-immolation and times of crisis, especially when secular powers were hostile towards Buddhism.[19] For example, Daoxuan's (c. 667) Xu Gaoseng Zhuan (Chinese: 續高僧傳; lit. 'Continued Biographies of Eminent Monks') records five monastics who self-immolated on the Zhongnan Mountains in response to the 574–577 persecution of Buddhism by Emperor Wu of Northern Zhou (known as the "Second Disaster of Wu").[20]

A Hindu widow burning herself with the corpse of her husband (sati), 1657

For many monks and laypeople in Chinese history, self-immolation was a form of Buddhist practice that modeled and expressed a particular path that led towards Buddhahood.[19]

Historian Jimmy Yu has stated that self-immolation cannot be interpreted based on Buddhist doctrine and beliefs alone but the practice must be understood in the larger context of the Chinese religious landscape. He examines many primary sources from the 16th and 17th century and demonstrates that bodily practices of self-harm, including self-immolation, was ritually performed not only by Buddhists but also by Daoists and literati officials who either exposed their naked body to the sun in a prolonged period of time as a form of self-sacrifice or burned themselves as a method of procuring rain.[21] In other words, self-immolation was a sanctioned part of Chinese culture that was public, scripted, and intelligible both to the person doing the act and to those who viewed and interpreted it, regardless of their various religion affiliations.

During the Great Schism of the Russian Church, entire villages of Old Believers burned themselves to death in an act known as "fire baptism" (self-burners: sozhigateli).[22] Scattered instances of self-immolation have also been recorded by the Jesuit priests of France in the early 17th century. However, their practice of this was not intended to be fatal: they would burn certain parts of their bodies (limbs such as the forearm or the thigh) to symbolise the pain Jesus endured while upon the cross. A 1973 study by a prison doctor suggested that people who choose self-immolation as a form of suicide are more likely to be in a "disturbed state of consciousness", such as epilepsy.[23]

Political protest

As a form of political protest, the 14th Dalai Lama explained in 2013 and 2015 the act of self-immolation:

I think the self-burning itself [is a] practice of non-violence. These people, you see, they [could instead] easily use bomb explosive, [causing more casualties]. But they didn't do that. Only sacrifice their own life. So this also is part of practice of non-violence.[24][25]

Self-immolations are often public and political statements that are often reported by the news media. They can be seen by others as a type of altruistic suicide for a collective cause, and are not intended to inflict physical harm on others or cause material damage.[26] They attract attention to a specific cause and those who undergo the act may be seen as martyrs. Self-immolation does not guarantee death for the burned; self-immolation survivors suffer from severe disfigurements from resulting burns.

Vietnam

The Buddhist crisis in South Vietnam saw the persecution of the country's majority religion under the administration of Catholic president Ngô Đình Diệm. Several Buddhist monks, including the most famous case of Thích Quảng Đức, immolated themselves in protest.

The example set by self-immolators in the mid 20th century did spark numerous similar acts between 1963 and 1971, most of which occurred in Asia and the United States in conjunction with protests opposing the Vietnam War. Researchers counted almost 100 self-immolations covered by The New York Times and The Times.[27]

Soviet Bloc

The memorial to Romas Kalanta in Kaunas in the place of his self-immolation. The inscription reads Romas Kalanta 1972.

In 1968, the practice spread to the Soviet bloc with the self-immolation of Polish accountant and Armia Krajowa veteran Ryszard Siwiec, as well as those of two Czech students, Jan Palach and Jan Zajíc, and of toolmaker Evžen Plocek, in protest against the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia. In 1978, Ukrainian dissident and former political prisoner Oleksa Hirnyk burnt himself near the tomb of the Ukrainian poet Taras Shevchenko protesting against the russification of Ukraine under Soviet rule. On 2 March 1989, Liviu Cornel Babeș set himself on fire on the Bradu ski slope at Poiana Brașov as a sign of protest against the communist regime. He left the message: "Stop Mörder! Brașov = Auschwitz." He was taken to the Brașov county hospital, where he died two hours later.

In 1972, Romas Kalanta, a 19-year-old Lithuanian high school student, self-immolated near the Kaunas State Musical Theatre protesting against the Soviet regime in Lithuania and it resulted in the 1972 unrest in Lithuania; in the same year another 13 people self-immolated in Lithuania.[28]

Russian Federation

In 2020, the practice resumed when Russian journalist Irina Slavina burned herself in Nizhny Novgorod after her last post on Facebook, in which she wrote: "I ask you to blame the Russian Federation for my death".[29] Cases of self-immolation as a form of political protest were also recorded in Moscow, St. Petersburg, Ufa, Izhevsk, Kemerovo and other cities of the Russian Federation. Most of the cases were fatal.

India

The practice continues, notably in India: as many as 1,451 and 1,584 self-immolations were reported there in 2000 and 2001, respectively.[30] A particularly high wave of self-immolation in India was recorded in 1990 protesting the system of Reservation.[26] Tamil Nadu has the highest number of self-immolations in India to date.

Iran

In Iran, most self-immolations have been performed by citizens protesting the tempestuous changes brought upon after the Iranian Revolution. Many of these instances have gone largely unreported by regime authority, but have been discussed and documented by established witnesses. Provinces that were involved more intensively in post-war problems feature higher rates of self-immolation.[31] These undocumented demonstrations of protest are deliberated upon worldwide, by professionals such as Iranian historians who appear on international broadcasts such as Voice of America, and use the immolations as propaganda to direct criticism towards the Censorship in Iran. One specifically well documented self-immolation transpired in 1993, 14 years after the revolution, and was performed by Homa Darabi, a self-proclaimed political activist affiliated with the Nation Party of Iran. Darabi is known for her political self-immolation in protest to the compulsory hijab. Self-immolation protests continue to take place against the regime to this day. Most recently accounted for is the September 2019 death of Sahar Khodayari, protesting a possible sentence of six months in prison for having tried to enter a public stadium to watch a football game, against the national ban against women at such events. One month after her death, Iranian women were allowed to attend a football match in Iran for the first time in 40 years.[32][33]

People's Republic of China

In 2009, the monk Tapey at Kirti Monastery in Amdo self-immolated in protest of the Chinese Government's restrictions placed against an important ceremony.[34] A wave of self-immolations began in 2011, after another monk, Phuntsok, also from Kirti Monastery self-immolated.[34] The wave continued until 2019 and resumed again in 2022. As of April 2022, there were 161 confirmed events in Tibet and 10 others made in solidarity outside of Tibet.[35][36] With the self-immolations by Tibetans, most of these protests (some 80%) end in death, while eyewitness reports state many of the protesters have been shot and beaten while burning, and then arrested by Chinese authorities, before disappearing.[37][38]

The 14th Dalai Lama has spoken with respect and compassion for those who engage in self-immolation, and blamed the self-immolations on "cultural genocide" by the Chinese.[39] The Chinese government claims that he and the exiled Tibetan government are inciting these acts.[40] In 2013, the Dalai Lama questioned the effectiveness of self-immolation as a demonstration tactic. He has also expressed that the Tibetans are acting of their own free will and stated that he cannot influence them to stop carrying out immolation as a form of protest.[41]

Arab Spring

A wave of self-immolation suicides occurred in conjunction with the Arab Spring protests in the Middle East and North Africa, with at least 14 recorded incidents. These suicides assisted in inciting the Arab Spring, including the 2010–2011 Tunisian revolution, the main catalyst of which was the self-immolation of Mohamed Bouazizi, the 2011 Algerian protests (including many self-immolations in Algeria), and the 2011 Egyptian revolution. There have also been suicide protests in Saudi Arabia, Mauritania, and Syria.[42][43]

Taiwan

On 3 December 2020, a Taiwanese man self-immolated to protest closure of CTi News.[44]

Australia

On 1 January 2022, an Australian man self-immolated to protest the COVID-19 vaccine mandates and vaccine IDs. He was later taken to the hospital.[45]

United States

On 14 April 2018, David Buckel self immolated in Prospect Park in Brooklyn. Shortly before lighting himself on fire he sent an email to several news outlets which included the statement "Most humans on the planet now breathe air made unhealthy by fossil fuels, and many die early deaths as a result—my early death by fossil fuel reflects what we are doing to ourselves."[46]

Wynn Bruce, a climate activist from Boulder, Colorado self-immolated on the steps of the Supreme Court of the United States on Earth Day, 22 April 2022. On 28 March 2022, he made a Facebook post stating “This is not humor. It is all about breathing” followed by “Clean air matters.”[47]

On 1 December 2023, a protester self-immolated in front of the Israeli consulate in Atlanta and was hospitalized in "critical condition" for severe burns. A security guard trying to stop the act was also burned on the wrist and leg.[48] The protester had draped herself in a Palestinian flag, and police indicated her actions were in response to the 2023 Israel–Hamas war.[49]

Japan

In 2014, two men set themselves on fire in protest at Japan's shift away from post-war pacifism.[50]

On 21 September 2022, a man believed to be in his 70s set himself on fire near the Japanese prime minister's office (Kantei). The man was expressing his disapproval for the planned state funeral for former prime minister Shinzo Abe.[50]

Turkey

On January 13, 2018, a 38-year-old man burned himself in front of the Grand National Assembly of Turkey in Ankara, stating that he had been jobless for 5 years, and had asked for help from the government to no avail. He later survived.[51]

Tunisia

On 13 April 2023, footballer Nizar Issaoui died after setting himself on fire in what Issaoui said was a protest against Tunisia's “police state”.[52] During his funeral, demonstrators started throwing stones at police, who retaliated with tear gas.[53]

See also

References

  1. ↑ "Definition of self-immolation | Dictionary.com". www.dictionary.com.
  2. ↑ "self-immolation". Merriam-Webster. Archived from the original on 22 April 2009. Retrieved 29 August 2021.
  3. ↑ Dvorak, Petula (30 May 2019). "Self-immolation can be a form of protest. Or a cry for help. Are we listening?". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 30 May 2019. Retrieved 29 August 2021.
  4. ↑ The Oxford English Dictionary, 2009, 2nd ed., v. 4.0, Oxford University Press.
  5. ↑ "immolate", Oxford Dictionaries.
  6. ↑ Santa Maria, Cara (9 April 2012). "Burn Care, Self-Immolation: Pain And Progress". Huffington Post. Retrieved 22 January 2021.
  7. ↑ Tvaruzkova, Lucie (26 April 2003). "What does death by burning mean?". The Guardian. Retrieved 22 January 2021.
  8. ↑ Alpert, Emily (15 February 2012). "What happens after people set themselves on fire?". The Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 22 January 2021.
  9. ↑ Plutarch, Life of Alexander, §8
  10. ↑ Wheeler, James Talboys (1973). The History of India: India from the earliest ages: Hindu, Buddhist, and Brahmanical revival. Cosmo Publications. pp. 171–72. Retrieved 23 July 2019.
  11. ↑ Hunter, W.W. (2005). The Indian empire : its people, history, and products (1886). New Delhi: Asian Educational Services. p. 169. ISBN 9788120615816.
  12. ↑ Hunter, William Wilson (1887). The Imperial Gazetteer of India. Trübner & Company. p. 173. Retrieved 23 July 2019.
  13. ↑ Classica Et Mediaevalia. Librairie Gyldendal. 1975. pp. 271–76. Retrieved 23 July 2019.
  14. ↑ Halkias, Georgios (2015). "The Self-immolation of Kalanos and other Luminous Encounters Among Greeks and Indian Buddhists in the Hellenistic World". Journal of the Oxford Centre for Buddhist Studies. 8: 163–186. Retrieved 30 May 2015.
  15. ↑ Diodorus Siculus, Library, 17.107.1
  16. ↑ Strabo, xv, 1, on the immolation of the Sramana in Athens (Paragraph 73).
  17. ↑ Dio Cassius, liv, 9; see also Halkias, Georgios "The Self-immolation of Kalanos and other Luminous Encounters among Greeks and Indian Buddhists in the Hellenistic world". Journal of the Oxford Centre for Buddhist Studies, Vol. VIII, 2015: 163–186
  18. ↑ Benn (2007), 33–34.
  19. 1 2 (2007), 199.
  20. ↑ Benn (2007), 80–82.
  21. ↑ Yu, Jimmy (2012), Sanctity and Self-Inflicted Violence in Chinese Religions, 1500–1700, Oxford University Press, 115–130.
  22. ↑ Coleman, Loren (2004). The Copycat Effect: How the Media and Popular Culture Trigger the Mayhem in Tomorrow's Headlines. New York: Paraview Pocket-Simon and Schuster. p. 46. ISBN 0-7434-8223-9.
  23. ↑ Prins, Herschel (2010). Offenders, Deviants or Patients?: Explorations in Clinical Criminology. Taylor & Francis. p. 291. Topp ... suggested that such individuals ... have some capacity for splitting off feelings from consciousness. ... One imagines that shock and asphyxiation would probably occur within a very short space of time so that the severe pain ... would not have to be endured for too long.
  24. ↑ "Dalai Lama shares wisdom on dissent, death and politicians". ABC News (Australia). 13 June 2013. Archived from the original on 22 October 2013.
  25. ↑ Thomas Kauffmann (2015). The Agendas of Tibetan Refugees: Survival Strategies of a Government-in-Exile in a World of Transnational Organizations. Berghahn Books. pp. 70–. ISBN 978-1-78238-283-6.
  26. 1 2 Biggs, Michael (2005). "Dying Without Killing: Self-Immolations, 1963–2002" (PDF). In Diego Gambetta (ed.). Making Sense of Suicide Missions. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-929797-9.
  27. ↑ Maris, Ronald W.; Alan Lee Berman; Morton M. Silverman; Bruce Michael Bongar (2000). Comprehensive textbook of suicidology. Guilford Press. p. 306. ISBN 978-1-57230-541-0.
  28. ↑ Anušauskas, Arvydas. "KGB reakcija į 1972 m. įvykius". Genocide and Resistance Research Centre of Lithuania. Retrieved 10 August 2023.
  29. ↑ "Russian journalist dies after setting herself on fire following police search". the Guardian. Reuters. 2 October 2020. Retrieved 3 October 2020.
  30. ↑ Coleman, Loren (2004). The Copycat Effect: How the Media and Popular Culture Trigger the Mayhem in Tomorrow's Headlines. New York: Paraview Pocket-Simon and Schuster. p. 66. ISBN 0-7434-8223-9.
  31. ↑ Ahmadi, A.; Mohammadi, R.; Stavrinos, D.; Almasi, A.; Schwebel, D. C. (2008). "National Library of Medicine: Self-immolation in Iran". Journal of Burn Care & Research. 29 (3): 451–60. doi:10.1097/BCR.0b013e31817112f1. PMID 18388564. S2CID 205481731.
  32. ↑ "Iranian female football fan who self-immolated outside court dies: official". The Guardian. 10 September 2019.
  33. ↑ "Iran football: Women attend first match in decades". BBC News. 10 October 2019.
  34. 1 2 Marie Simon, interview of Katia Buffetrille, "Se sacrifier par le feu pour que le Tibet reste tibétain", first published 29/03/2012
  35. ↑ Free Tibet. "Tibetan Monk Dies After Self-Immolating in Eastern Tibet". Retrieved 20 May 2017.
  36. ↑ "Tibetan dies after self-immolation, reports say". Fox News. 21 July 2013.
  37. ↑ Self-immolation fact sheet, (2 December 2019), https://savetibet.org/tibetan-self-immolations/
  38. ↑ Ross, Tracy (24 September 2019). "Tibet Is Still Burning". Outside. Retrieved 21 October 2020."Chinese police have beaten, shot, isolated, and disappeared self-immolators who survived."
  39. ↑ "Teenage Tibetan monk self-immolates, dies: rights group". Reuters. 19 February 2012. Retrieved 29 May 2012.
  40. ↑ "Teenage monk sets himself on fire on 53rd anniversary of failed Tibetan uprising". The Telegraph. London. 13 March 2012. Archived from the original on 12 January 2022. Retrieved 29 March 2012.
  41. ↑ "Dalai Lama doubts effect of Tibetan self-immolations". The Daily Telegraph. London. 13 June 2013. Archived from the original on 12 January 2022.
  42. ↑ "Self-immolation spreads across Mideast inspiring protest". The Jerusalem Post | JPost.com. 25 January 2011. Retrieved 17 March 2023.
  43. ↑ "Second Algerian dies from self-immolation: official". Retrieved 17 March 2023.
  44. ↑ "Taiwanese man self immolates to protest closure of pro-China CTi News". 3 December 2020.
  45. ↑ Van Homrigh, Mitchell (2 January 2022). "Melbourne man set himself on fire after shouting about vaccine mandates". News.com.au. Retrieved 14 January 2022.
  46. ↑ Correal, Annie (28 May 2018). "What Drove a Man to Set Himself on Fire in Brooklyn?". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 24 April 2022.
  47. ↑ "Climate activist dies after setting himself on fire outside of US Supreme Court". The Independent. 24 April 2022. Retrieved 24 April 2022.
  48. ↑ "Protester sets self on fire in apparent 'political protest' outside Atlanta Israeli Consulate office". ABC7 Chicago. 1 December 2023. Retrieved 3 December 2023.
  49. ↑ Fiallo, Josh (1 December 2023). "Pro-Palestine Protester Sets Herself Ablaze Outside Atlanta Consulate". The Daily Beast. Retrieved 13 January 2024.
  50. 1 2 Katsumura, Mariko; Lies, Elaine (21 September 2022). "Japanese man sets himself on fire in apparent protest at former PM's state funeral". Reuters.
  51. ↑ "Meclis önünde kendini yakan işçi konuştu: Oyumu Tayyip'e attım". Cumhuriyet (in Turkish). 13 January 2018. Retrieved 17 December 2022.
  52. ↑ "Tunisian footballer dies after setting himself on fire in 'police state' protest". The Observer. theguardian.com. Agence France-Presse. 15 April 2023.
  53. ↑ "Nizar Issaoui: Protests at funeral of Tunisian footballer who set himself on fire". BBC News. 15 April 2023.

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