Suffixes

A suffix (ek) is attached to a stem (gövde). A stem may be a root (kök) or further analyzable. The suffixes used in Turkish fall roughly into two classes: constructive suffixes (yapım ekleri) and inflectional suffixes (çekim ekleri). A constructive suffix makes a new word from an old one, that is, it is a derivational suffix. An inflectional suffix indicates how a word is used in a sentence. The article on Turkish grammar pertains chiefly to inflectional suffixes. The article on Turkish vocabulary treats the constructive suffixes.

The vowels of suffixes undergo vowel harmony. When a suffix is attached to a stem, the vowel in the suffix generally agrees in frontness or backness and in roundedness with the last vowel in the stem or of the preceding suffix.

Some suffixes show two-way vowel harmony between e and a, for example the plural suffix -ler/-lar. The e form is found after a syllable with i, e, ö or ü (e.g. evler "houses", günler "days"), and also after certain Arabic or French borrowings such as saatler "hours, clocks", kalpler "hearts". Other suffixes show four-way vowel harmony between i, ı, u, ü, for example the possessive ending -im/-ım/-um/-üm "my". These endings are found after syllables containing their own vowels or after e, a, o, ö respectively (e.g. evim "my house", gözüm "my eye", etc.)

A Turkish suffix can be called enclitic if its vowel undergoes vowel harmony, agreeing with the last vowel of the stem the suffix is attached to.

Gender

Turkish lacks grammatical gender except in a few sex-specific words (mostly naming professions or different sexes of livestock). The English third-person singular pronouns she, he, and it all correspond to a single Turkish pronoun, o. Many given names in Turkish are unisex, so it is entirely possible to describe someone in the Turkish language without their gender being discernible from grammatical context.

Person

Turkish has a strong T–V distinction, using the second-person plural as the formal form, as in French and many other languages.

Turkish also uses various honorifics.

Turkish terminology

In the Turkish terms for the constructive and inflectional endings, three roots are involved:

• ek "supplement, affix" (notably Turkish has no prefixes)
• yap- "make"
• çek- "pull, draw"

For the last two verbal roots, the constructive suffix -im can be added to form nouns for instances of the actions denoted by the roots:

• yapım "construction";
• çekim "[a] pull or draw" (or a "take" in cinema).

Either of these nouns can be compounded with the noun ek, resulting in an indefinite compound (belirtisiz tamlama), the sign of which is the inflectional suffix -i attached to ek:

• yapım eki "structure-suffix";
• çekim eki "inflection-suffix".

The inflectional suffix -ler comes before the -i to form the plural, so yapım ekleri, çekim ekleri.

Many words in Turkish— particularly many grammatical terms— are neologisms invented to replace earlier words borrowed from Arabic or Persian, which have largely been successful at permanently superseding the previously used foreign terms. (See the main article on Turkish language.) In some cases, the foreign term continues to be in use alongside the neologism.

Inflection

A Turkish noun has no gender. The dictionary-form of a noun can take up to four (kinds of) inflectional suffixes, generally in the following order:

1. plural suffix;
2. suffix of possession (iyelik eki from iye "owner");
3. case-ending;
4. personal suffix (kişi eki from kişi "person").

Through its presence or absence, the plural ending shows distinctions of number.

Verbal nouns

The infinitive, formed with -mek as noted earlier, does not take a suffix of possession, or the genitive case-ending. It does take all other case-endings. In particular, the progressive characteristic given earlier is the infinitive ending with the locative ending:

Konuşmaktayız – "We are in (the act of) speaking."

Savaşmaktayız – "We are in warmaking", that is, "We are at war."

The verbal noun in -me is called a gerund above, since it corresponds roughly to the English gerund.

bekle "wait" → bekleme "waiting": bekleme odası "waiting room"

The verbal noun can take a suffix of possession and any case-ending:

The dative form of a Turkish gerund can correspond precisely to an English infinitive with to:

The suffix -iş can also be used to create verbal nouns:

Verb	Noun
yürü- "walk"	yürüyüş "walk, walking"
yağ- "rain"	yağış "rain"
al- "take" + ver- "give/spend"	alışveriş "shopping"
yara- "be of use", yaratıl- "be created"	yaratılış "creation"

The verb et- "make, do" can be considered as an auxiliary verb, since for example it is often used with verbal nouns borrowed from other languages, such as Arabic:

kabul et- "accept" (kabul "[an] accepting");
reddet- "reject" (ret "[a] rejecting");
ziyaret et- "visit"  (ziyaret "[a] visiting").

Considered as units, these are transitive verbs; but the nouns in them can also, by themselves, take direct objects:

Antalya'yı ziyaret "visit to Antalya".

What looks like an ablative gerund is usually an adverb; the ending -meden usually has the sense of "without". See #Adverbs below.

An infinitive in the absolute case can be the object of a verb such as iste- "want":

Note here that the compound verb devam et- "continue, last" does not take a direct object, but is complemented by a dative noun.

Another way to express obligation (besides with lâzım as in the earlier example) is by means of zor "trouble, compulsion" and an infinitive:

Gitmek zoru "Go compulsion",
Gitmek zorundayız "We must go".

(Source: same as the last example.)

Both an infinitive and a gerund are objects of the postposition için "for" in the third sentence of the quotation within the following quotation:

A free translation is:

The facility authorities said: "The people of this district [namely Edremit, Van] are generally conservative. They cannot enter the lake comfortably, because the shore areas are near the road. So we are using a screen, both to close off the view of passersby on the road, and so that men will not cause discomfort." However, children cannot be prevented from spying on the other side through gaps in the screen.

Auxiliary verbs

Certain verbs in Turkish are used to enhance the meaning of other verbs, or to agglutinate verbs from nouns. These verbs are called auxiliary verbs. A concise list follows:

Verbs that are used with nouns to agglutinate new verbs

• etmek (to do)
• olmak (to be)
• kılmak (to make)
• eylemek (to make)

Examples

• farz (assumption) → farz etmek (to assume)
• hak (right) → hak etmek (to deserve)
• af (amnesty) → affetmek (to excuse)
• kayıp (loss) → kaybetmek (to lose)
• terk (leaving) → terk etmek (to leave)
• arz (submission, supply) → arz etmek (to submit, to supply)

If there is a change in the noun root through the process of agglutination, it is written adjacently. These are mostly Arabic loan-words, which switch to their more original form.

In Turkish words, two consonants of a syllable need a vowel to be pronounced. There are exceptions in loan words only, but those that lost their original form are more common. This occurs in two ways:

If a word ends in two identical consonants, one is dropped, e.g. hall ("state, status") becomes hal; aff ("amnesty, forgiving") becomes af.

If a syllable ends in two different consonants, a vowel is added between them; e.g., hükm ("judgement") becomes hüküm.

Exceptions: Words which end in nk, rt, rk, such as taht ("throne"), renk ("colour"), kart ("card"), do not add a vowel. Most of these are loan-words from Persian or Western languages (but zevk "pleasure" from Arabic ذَوْق).

Examples

Verbs that are used with other verbs to enhance the meaning:

• -(i)vermek (implies urgency)
• -(e)bilmek (implies ability)
• -(e)durmak (implies continuity)
• -(e)gelmek (implies repetition)
• -(a)kalmak (implies continuity)
• -(e)yazmak (implies a close escape)
• -(e)görmek (implies a warning)

Examples

• düş- (fall) → düşeyazdım (I almost fell)
• git- (go) → gidiverdim (I just went)
• yavaşla- (slow down) → yavaşlayabilirim (I can slow down)
• yaz- (write) → yazaduruyorlar (they keep on writing)
• söylen- (be told) → söylenegelir (keeps being told)

Descriptive adjectives

Most adjectives in the dictionary are descriptive. The two most fundamental descriptive adjectives are:

• var ("existing")
• yok ("not existing")

These are used only predicatively:

• with the sense of the English "There is" and "There is not":

• in the construction that supplies the lack of a verb "have":

(This is a proverbial expression; the more usual order would make the saying, Balcının bal tası var, oduncunun baltası var).

Indefinite adjectives

The cardinal number bir ("one") can be used as an indefinite article. Word order can make a difference:

güzel bir gün – "a nice day"

bir güzel gün – "one fine day"

Unless it is being used by itself, elliptically, the adjective hiç ("no") requires an additional word with negative force:

Compare:

• Bir şey görüyorum. – "I see something."
• Hiçbir şey görmüyorum. – "I don't see anything."

Comparison

In a positive comparison, the object takes the ablative case; the adverb daha ("more") is optional, unless the object is left out.

In a negative comparison, the adverb az ("less") is needed; the object still takes the ablative; daha can still be used as well.

The superlative degree is expressed by the adverb en ("most").

Participles

It is noted under #Parts of speech that Turkish participles (sıfat-fiiller) can be classified as

• personal, if they take a suffix of possession;
• impersonal, if they do not.

In a personal participle, the suffix of possession signifies the subject of the underlying verb; if this possessor is third person, then the possessor may be further specified with a noun in the genitive case.

The noun modified by a personal participle as an adjective may be the direct object of the underlying verb; the connection may also be more vague.

The noun modified by an impersonal participle is generally the subject of the underlying verb (but see Lewis (1967: IX,2)).

The aorist tense (geniş zaman "broad time") is for habitual actions; the present tense (şimdiki zaman "time that is now") is for actions ongoing or contemplated.

Intensification

Turkish adjectives can be intensified with intensifying (pekiştirme) prefixes.^[17]

If the adjective begins with a consonant the prefix is the consonant + the following vowel + m, p, r, or s.^[17] p operates as the default, and is the most common form. Forms in r and m are rare. There is no single rule that governs the choice of the final consonant. This choice tends to minimize featural similarity with consonants in the base adjective, in particular, the first and second consonants:^[18]

• siyah ("black") → simsiyah ("pitch black")
• güzel ("pretty") → güpgüzel ("very pretty")
• temiz ("clean") → tertemiz ("clean as a pin")
• katı ("hard") → kaskatı ("hard as a rock")

If the adjective begins with a vowel, the prefix consists of this vowel + p:^[17]

• uzun ("long") → upuzun ("very long")

The vowel is sometimes also added after the consonant:^[17]

• sağlam ("healthy") → sapasağlam ("very healthy") (sapsağlam also exists)
• yalnız ("alone") → yapayalnız ("all alone") (yapyalnız also exists)
• gündüz ("daytime") → güpegündüz ("") (güpgündüz also exists)
• çevre ("") → çepeçevre ("") (çepçevre also exists)
• tıp ("medical") → tıpatıp ("exactly")

There are also some irregular suffixes:^[17][19]

• çıplak ("naked") → çırılçıplak ("stark naked") (çırçıplak and çırçıplak also exist)
• sıklam ("") → sırılsıklam ("") (sırsıklam also exists)
• karışık ("complex") → karmakarışık ("totally complex")
• dağınık ("untidy") → darmadağınık ("very untidy") (dapdağınık and dasdağınık also exist)
• renk ("colored") → rengârenk ("multicolored")
• deli ("mad") → zırdeli ("raving mad")
• parça ("piece") → paramparça ("in pieces")

Some adjectives have more than one intensified form:^[20]

• düz ("flat"): düpdüz (24.1%), dümdüz (78.1%) ("very flat", 2 forms) (the irregular düpedüz also exists)
• yaş ("fresh"): yapyaş (44.8%), yamyaş (58.6%) ("very fresh", 2 forms)
• sefil ("miserable"): sepsefil (24.1%), semsefil (6.8%), sersefil (66.6%) ("very miserable", 3 forms)
• geniş ("large"): gepgeniş (77%), gemgeniş (9.15%), gesgeniş (6.8%), gergeniş (5.7%) ("very large", 4 forms)
• topaç (""): toptopaç (47.15%), tomtopaç (5.75%), tostopaç (33.3%), tortopaç (3.4%) ("very ", 4 forms)

This process is also called emphatic reduplication. It is only applied to particular common adjectives (between 100^[21] and 215 depending on sources^[22]), and not to new adjectives which enter Turkish. However, native speakers are able to produce novel forms when asked to do so.^[18]

Copula

Stems of verbs

Many stems in the dictionary are indivisible; others consist of endings attached to a root.

Bases of verbs

The characteristics with which verb-bases are formed from stems are given under § Inflectional suffixes. Note again that aorist verbs have their own peculiar negative and impotential forms.

The progressive base in -mekte is discussed under § Verbal nouns. Another base, namely the necessitative (gereklilik), is formed from a verbal noun. The characteristic is -meli, where -li forms adjectives from nouns, and -me forms gerunds from verb-stems. A native speaker may perceive the ending -meli as indivisible; the analysis here is from #Lewis [VIII,30]).

The present base is derived from the ancient verb yorı- "go, walk" #Lewis [VIII,16]; this can be used for ongoing actions, or for contemplated future actions.

The meaning of the aorist base is described under #Adjectives from verbs: participles.

There is some irregularity in first-person negative and impotential aorists. The full form of the base -mez (or (y)emez) reappears before the interrogative particle mi:

Gelmem "I do not come" (cf. Gelmez miyim "Do I not come?");

Gelmeyiz "We do not come" (cf. Gelmez miyiz "Do we not come?")

The definite past or di-past is used to assert that something did happen in the past. The inferential past or miş-past can be understood as asserting that a past participle is applicable now; hence it is used when the fact of a past event, as such, is not important; in particular, the inferential past is used when one did not actually witness the past event.

A newspaper will generally use the di-past, because it is authoritative. The need to indicate uncertainty and inference by means of the miş-past may help to explain the extensive use of ki in the newspaper excerpt at Turkish vocabulary#The conjunction ki.

The conditional (şart) verb could also be called "hypothetical"; it is used for remote possibilities, or things one might wish for. (See also #Compound bases.)

The various bases thus give distinctions of tense, aspect and mood. These can be briefly tabulated:

First-person singular verbs

Form	Suffix	Verb	English Translation
Progressive	-mekte	gelmekteyim	"I am in the process of coming"
Necessitative	-meli	gelmeliyim	"I must come"
Positive	-(i/e)r	gelirim	"I come"
Negative	-me(z)	gelmem	"I do not come"
Impotential	-(y)eme(z)	gelemem	"I cannot come"
Future	-(y)ecek	geleceğim	"I will come"
Inferential Past	-miş	gelmişim	"It seems that I came"
Present/Imperfective	-iyor	geliyorum	"I am coming"
Perfective/Definite Past	-di	geldim	"I came"
Conditional	-se	gelsem	"if only I came"

Questions

The interrogative particle mi precedes predicative (type-I) endings (except for the 3rd person plural -ler), but follows the complete verb formed from a verbal, type-II ending:

Geliyor musunuz? "Are you coming?" (but: Geliyorlar mı? "Are they coming?")

Geldiniz mi? "Did you come?"

Optative and imperative moods

Usually, in the optative (istek), only the first-person forms are used, and these supply the lack of a first-person imperative (emir). In common practice then, there is one series of endings to express something wished for:

Merged Optative & Imperative Moods

Number	Person	Ending	Example	English Translation
Singular	1st	-(y)eyim	Geleyim	"Let me come"
	2nd	—	Gel	"Come (you, singular)"
	3rd	-sin	Gelsin	"Let [her/him/it] come"
Plural	1st	-(y)elim	Gelelim	"Let us come"
	2nd	-(y)in(iz)	Gelin	"Come (you, plural)"
	3rd	-sinler	Gelsinler	"Let them come"

The defective verb i-

The ancient verb er- #Lewis [VIII,2] survives in Turkish in three bases:

• imiş,
• idi,
• ise.

The form iken given under #Adverbs from verbs is also descended from er-. Since no more bases are founded on the stem i-, this verb can be called defective. In particular, i- forms no negative or impotential stems; negation is achieved with the #Adverb of negation, değil, given earlier.

The i- bases are often turned into base-forming suffixes without change in meaning; the corresponding suffixes are

• -(y)miş,
• -(y)di,
• -(y)se,

where the y is used only after vowels. For example, Hasta imiş and Hastaymış both mean, "Apparently/Reportedly, he/she/it is ill".

The verb i- serves as a copula. When a copula is needed, but the appropriate base in i- does not exist, then the corresponding base in ol- is used; when used otherwise this stem means "become".

The verb i- is irregular in the way it is used in questions: the particle mi always precedes it:

Kuş idi or Kuştu "It was a bird";

Kuş muydu? "Was it a bird?"

Compound bases

The bases so far considered can be called "simple". A base in i- can be attached to another base, forming a compound base. One can then interpret the result in terms of English verb forms by reading backwards. The following list is representative, not exhaustive:

• Past tenses:
  • continuous past: Geliyordum "I was coming";
  • aorist past: Gelirdim "I used to come";
  • future past: Gelecektim "I was going to come";
  • pluperfect: Gelmiştim "I had come";
  • necessitative past: Gelmeliydim "I had to come";
  • conditional past: Gelseydim "If only I had come."
• Inferential tenses:
  • continuous inferential: Geliyormuşum "It seems (they say) I am coming";
  • future inferential: Gelecekmişim "It seems I shall come";
  • aorist inferential: Gelirmişim "It seems I come";
  • necessitative inferential: Gelmeliymişim "They say I must come."

By means of ise or -(y)se, a verb can be made conditional in the sense of being the hypothesis or protasis of a complex statement:

önemli bir şey yapıyorsunuz "You are doing something important";

Önemli bir şey yapıyorsanız, rahatsız etmeyelim "If you are doing something important, let us not cause disturbance."

The simple conditional can be used for remote conditions:

Bakmakla öğrenilse, köpekler kasap olurdu "If learning by looking were possible, dogs would be butchers."

Grammars

• Robert Underhill (1976). Turkish Grammar. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. "A classic, still used to teach Turkish grammar in many universities."
• Kaya Can (1991). Yabancılar İçin Türkçe-İngilizce Açıklama Türkçe Dersleri. Ankara: Orta Doğu Teknik Üniversitesi, Fen ve Edebiyat Fakültesi. "Turkish lessons with Turkish-English explanation[s] for foreigners."
• Ekrem Čaušević (1996). Gramatika suvremenoga turskog jezika. Zagreb, CRO: Sveučilišna naklada. "A classic, still used to teach Turkish grammar in many universities."
• Aslı Göksel & Celia Kerslake (2005). Turkish: A Comprehensive Grammar. London: Routledge. "The most recent comprehensive grammar in English."
• G. L. Lewis (1967). Turkish Grammar. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-815838-6.
• G. L. Lewis (2000). Turkish Grammar. Oxford University Press. Second edition. Structural differences between the two editions are not named in the second, but appear to be as follows: IV,4 "-çe", VI,7 "Arithmetical terms", XI,16 "-diğinde", and XII,25 "tâ" are new, while XV,1 "Nominal sentences and verbal sentences" in the first edition was dropped.
• Eran Oyal (1986). Sözcüklerin Anlamsal ve Yapısal Özellikleri: Konular, Örnekler, Sorular, Açıklama Yanıtlar (ÖSS ve ÖYS için Dil Yeteneği Dizisi 2). Ankara. "Semantic and syntactic properties of words: subjects, examples, questions, answers with explanation (language ability for the university entrance examinations, 2)."
• Atilla Özkırımlı (2001). Türk Dili, Dil ve Anlatım. İstanbul Bilgi Üniversitesi Yayınları. "The Turkish language, language, and expression."
• Bengisu Rona (1989). Turkish in Three Months. Hugo's Language Books Limited.
• Gerjan van Schaaik (2001). The Bosphorus Papers: Studies in Turkish Grammar 1996–1999. İstanbul: Boğaziçi University Press.
• Gerjan van Schaaik (2020). The Oxford Turkish Grammar. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Dictionaries

• İsmet Zeki Eyuboğlu (1991). Türk Dilinin Etimoloji Sözlüğü. "Etymological Dictionary of the Turkish Language." Expanded and revised second edition.
• H.-J. Kornrumpf (1989). Langenscheidt's Universal Dictionary: English-Turkish, Turkish-English. Istanbul. New edition revised and updated by Resuhi Akdikmen.
• Redhouse Yeni Türkçe-İngilizce Sözlük. New Redhouse Turkish-English Dictionary. Redhouse Yayınevi, İstanbul, 1968 (12th ed., 1991).
• Redhouse Büyük Elsözlüğü İngilizce-Türkçe, Türkçe-İngilizce. The Larger Redhouse Portable Dictionary English-Turkish, Turkish-English. Redhouse Yayınevi, İstanbul 1997 (9th printing, 1998).
• Türk Dil Kurumu [Turkish Language Foundation], Türkçe Sözlük, expanded 7th edition, 1983.

Other Grammars

• Aksan, Doğan (Hazırlayan) (1983), Sözcük Türleri, TDK, Ankara, 2. Baskı, 288 s.
• Aksan, Doğan (1978), Türkiye Türkçesinde Gelişmeli Sesbilim, (Hazırlayanlar: Atabay, N-Özel, S., Çam, A.-Pirali, N.), TDK, Ankara.
• Atabay, Neşe-Özel, Sevgi-Çam, Ayfer (1981), Türkiye Türkçesinin Sözdizimi, TDK, Ankara, 131 s. (2003), Papatya Yayınları.
• Atalay, Besim (Haz.), (Bergamalı Kadri) (1946), Müyessiretü’l-Ulûm, İbrahim Horoz Basımevi, İstanbul.
• Banguoğlu, Tahsin (1940), Ana Hatları ile Türk Grameri, İstanbul.
• Banguoğlu, Tahsin (1959), Türk Grameri I: Sesbilgisi, TDK, Ankara, 306 s.
• Banguoğlu, Tahsin (1986), Türkçenin Grameri, TDK, Ankara, 2. Baskı, 628 s.
• Bilgegil, Kaya (1984), Türkçe Dilbilgisi, Dergâh Yayınları, İstanbul
• Bozkurt, Fuat (1995), Türkiye Türkçesi, Cem Yayınevi, İstanbul, 552 s.
• Burdurlu, İbrahim Zeki (1982), Uygulamalı Cümle Çözümlemeleri, İstanbul.
• Delice, H. İbrahim, (2003), Türçe Sözdizimi, Kitabevi, İstanbul, 248s.
• Demiray, Kemal (1964), Türkçe Dilbilgisi, Ankara.
• Demircan, Ömer (1996), Türkçenin Sesdizimi, Der Yayınları, İstanbul, X+196 s, (2002) Der Yayınları.
• Demircan, Ömer (1979), Türkiye Türkçesinin Ses Düzeni Türkiye Türkçesinde Sesler, Ankara
• Demircan (1977), Ömer, Türkiye Türkiye Türkçesinde Kök-Ek Bileşmeleri, TDK, Ankara
• Deny, Jean (1992), Grammaire de la Langue Turque, Dialecte Osmanli, Paris, 1920, 1216 s.
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• Deny, Jean (1995), Türk Dili Gramerinin Temel Kuralları, (Çeviren: Oytun ŞAHiN), TDK, Ankara, XII+164 s.
• Dilmen, İbrahim Necmi (1930), Türkçe Gramer, İstanbul, 2 cilt.
• Dizdaroglu, Hikmet (1976), Tümcebilgisi, TDK, Ankara, 522+2 s.(doğru-yanlış cetveli).
• Dizdaroglu, Hikmet (1988), Türkçede Sözcük Yapma Yolları, Ankara, 1962.
• Eckmann, János, Çağatayca El Kitabı, (Çeviren: Günay Karaağaç), İstanbul Üniversitesi Edebiyat Fakültesi Yay., İstanbul, XVI+288 s.
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• Emecan, Neşe (1998), 1960'tan Günümüze Türkçe, İstanbul.
• Emre, Ahmed Cevat (1945), Türk Dilbilgisi, TDK, İstanbul, XIX+613 s.
• Ergin, Muharrem (1987), Osmanlıca Dersleri, Boğaziçi Yayınları, İstanbul, 9. Baskı, VIII+124+236+16 s.
• Ergin, Muharrem (1985), Türk Dil Bilgisi, Boğaziçi Yayınları, İstanbul, 5. Baskı, XXVIII+407 s.
• Gabain, Annamarie (1988), Eski Türkçenin Grameri, (Çeviren: Mehmet Akalın), TDK, Ankara, XXIII+313 s.
• Gencan, Tahir Nejat (1966), Dilbilgisi, TDK, İstanbul, XV+412 s, (2001), Ayraç Yayınları .
• Göğüş, Beşir (1969), Faydalı Dilbilgisi, I-II-II, İstanbul
• Göknel, Yüksel (1974), Modern Türkçe Dilbilgisi, İzmir
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