Hamas motivations

Hamas officials said their attack was a response to the Israeli occupation, blockade of the Gaza Strip, Israeli settler violence against Palestinians, restrictions on the movement of Palestinians, and imprisonment of thousands of Palestinians.^{[150][151][152]}

Mohammad Deif, the head of Hamas's military wing, the Qassam Brigades, said in a recorded message on 7 October that it was in response to what he called the "desecration" of the Al-Aqsa Mosque, and Israel killing and wounding hundreds of Palestinians in 2023.^[153] He called on Palestinians and Arab Israelis to "expel the occupiers and demolish the walls".^[153][154] Deif also called on "Muslims everywhere to launch an attack" against Israel and to urged supporters to "kill them [the enemy] wherever you may find them".^[155][156] He continued, "in light of the continuing crimes against our people, in light of the orgy of occupation and its denial of international laws and resolutions, and in light of American and western support, we've decided to put an end to all this, so that the enemy understands that he can no longer revel without being held to account."^[157][158]

Many scholars state that Hamas's objective is the establishment of a Palestinian state within the 1967 borders,^[159] though Hamas has repeatedly called for the destruction of Israel.^{[160][lower-alpha 22]} In 2017, Hamas replaced its old charter with a new one that removed antisemitic language and stated that its struggle was with Zionists, not Jews.^{[161][162][163][164]} However, the new charter also mentions Hamas will accept the peace agreements only provisionally and will not relinquish its stated goal of liberating the whole of historic Palestine.^[165] The attack was also seen as a resolution of internal tensions within Hamas as to whether the group's main goal is governing the Gaza Strip or fighting against Israel.^[166]

The disruption of Israel-Arab diplomacy and the desire to assert its presence as a significant security and political force are considered as likely motives by experts as well.^[167]

Israeli policy

Benjamin Netanyahu is Israel's prime minister, and has held this position for most of the two decades preceding the war, with the exception of the period from June 2021 to January 2023 when Naftali Bennett and later Yair Lapid took office.^[168] Both governments have been criticized for having championed a policy of empowering the Hamas government in Gaza by, for instance, granting work permits to Gazan residents, facilitating the transfer of funds to Hamas and maintaining relative calm.^{[169][170][171]} By the conclusion of Netanyahu's fifth government in 2021, the issuance of work permits to Gazans reached approximately 2,000-3,000; however, under the Bennett-Lapid government, this number significantly increased to 10,000.^[169] More recently, another 8,000 permits have been granted to West Bank residents under Israel's Unity Government for agricultural work, despite concerns about their vetting and potential security risks.^[172] In total, Israel has allowed up to 18,000 Palestinian laborers from Gaza to work in Israel over recent years.^[173][174] In addition to granting workers permits, millions of dollars from Qatar have been transported into Gaza, escorted by Mossad, Israel's intelligence agency, intended for Gaza's power plant, infrastructure projects and monthly stipends for impoverished Palestinian families, whilst Israeli officials were aware that Hamas might divert the funds to acquire weapons and rockets.^[175][170]

These strategies towards Hamas have been criticized as having backfired in light of the attacks on 7 October 2023.^[171] Critics, including human-rights activists and aid organizations, cautioned that such policies may have prolonged Hamas's power in Gaza whilst weakening Mahmoud Abbas of the Palestinian Authority in the West Bank thus sabotaging a two-state solution.^[176][171] This criticism has been echoed by several Israeli officials, including former prime minister Ehud Barak and former head of the Shin Bet internal security service Yuval Diskin.^[176] The Palestinian Authority and Saudi Arabia were also critical of Netanyahu's government allowing Qatar to deliver suitcases of money to Hamas^[176] in exchange for maintaining the ceasefire.^[169] A Times of Israel op-ed argued after the Hamas attack that Netanyahu's policy to treat the Palestinian Authority as a burden and Hamas as an asset had "blown up in our faces".^[169] Netanyahu himself has criticized opinions on his responsibility for the 7th of October attacks, stating "Did people ask Franklin Roosevelt, after Pearl Harbor, that question? Did people ask George Bush after the surprise attack of November [sic] 11?” referring to the September 11, 2001, terror attacks.^[177]

Numerous commentators have identified the broader context of Israeli occupation as a cause of the war.^{[178][179][180][181][182]} The Associated Press wrote that Palestinians are "in despair over a never-ending occupation in the West Bank and suffocating blockade of Gaza."^[183] Several human rights organizations, including Amnesty International,^[184] B'Tselem^[185] and Human Rights Watch^[186] have likened the Israeli occupation to apartheid, although supporters of Israel dispute this characterization.^[187][188] The UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) reported roughly 6,400 Palestinians and 300 Israelis were killed in the wider Israeli–Palestinian conflict from 2008 through September 2023 before the start of this war.^{[115][189][114]}

2023 Israeli-Palestinian escalation

Over the course of 2023, before the attack, 39 Israelis and two foreign nationals had been killed, 116 wounded in Palestinian attacks, while at least 247 Palestinians had been killed by Israeli forces.^[190] Increases in settler attacks had displaced hundreds of Palestinians, and there were clashes around the Al-Aqsa Mosque which sits on the Temple Mount, a contested holy site in Jerusalem.^[191]

In August 2023, 1,264 Palestinians were held in administrative detention in Israel, without charge or trial, the highest number in three decades.^[192][193] Israel says this tactic is necessary in order to contain dangerous militants.^[192]

Tensions between Israel and Hamas rose in September 2023, and the Washington Post described the two "on the brink of war".^[194] Israel found explosives hidden in a shipment of jeans and halted all exports from Gaza.^[194] In response, Hamas put its forces on high alert, and conducted military exercises with other groups, including openly practicing storming Israeli settlements.^[194] Hamas also allowed Palestinians to resume protests at the Israel-Gaza barrier.^[194] On 13 September, five Palestinians were killed at the border. According to the Washington Post, the Palestinians were attempting to detonate an explosive device.^[194] Al-Jazeera reported that a Palestinian Explosives Engineering Unit was working to deactivate the device.^[195] On 29 September, Qatar, the UN, and Egypt mediated an agreement between Israel and Hamas officials in the Gaza Strip to reopen closed crossing points and deescalate tensions.^[196][197]

Simon Tisdall argues that an uptick in Israeli–Palestinian violence in the West Bank in the first half of 2023 had portended war,^[198] and stated that Netanyahu's "refusal to contemplate any type of peace process" added "fuel to the smouldering fire" in the context of "the relentless expansion of illegal Israeli settlements".^[198] Prior to the attack, Saudi Arabia warned Israel of an "explosion" as a result of the continued occupation,^[199] Egypt had warned of a catastrophe unless there was political progress,^[139] and similar warnings were given by Palestinian Authority officials.^[139] Two months before the attacks, King Abdullah II of Jordan commented that Palestinians have "no civil rights; no freedom of mobility".^[139]

Israeli intelligence failure

Israeli intelligence officials initially stated that they had no warnings or indications of the 7 October attack by Hamas, despite Israel exercising extensive monitoring over Gaza.^[200] Furthermore, the United States warned the Israeli government of the possibility of a surprise attack from Hamas a few days before the incident.^[201] Egypt said it warned Israel days before the attack, "an explosion of the situation is coming, and very soon, and it would be big".^[202] Israel denied receiving such a warning,^[203] but the Egyptian statement was corroborated by Michael McCaul, Chairman of the US House Foreign Relations Committee, who said warnings were made three days before the attack.^[204]

According to the New York Times, Israeli officials had obtained detailed attack plans more than a year prior to the actual attack. The document described operational plans and targets, including the size and location of Israeli forces, and raised questions in Israel as to how Hamas was able to learn these details. The document provided a plan that included a large scale rocket assault prior to an invasion, drones to knock out the surveillance cameras and gun turrets that Israel has deployed along the border, and gunmen invading Israel, including with paragliders. The Times reported that "Hamas followed the blueprint with shocking precision." According to the Times, the document was circulating among Israeli military and intelligence leadership, who largely dismissed the plan as being beyond Hamas's capabilities, though it was unclear if the political leadership was informed. In July 2023, a member of the Israeli signals intelligence unit alerted her superiors that Hamas was conducting preparations for the assault, saying that "I utterly refute that the scenario is imaginary". An Israeli colonel ignored her concerns.^[205] According to the Financial Times, alerts from the signals unit were ignored because they came from lower-ranking soldiers, contradicted the belief that Hamas was contained by Israel's blockade of the Gaza Strip, bombing, and placation via aid, and the belief that Hamas was seeking to avoid a full war.^[206][207]

Israel–Saudi normalization talks

At the time of the attack, Israel and Saudi Arabia were conducting negotiations to normalize relations. Saudi Arabian crown prince Mohammed bin Salman said normalization was "for the first time real".^[208]

Iran proxy warfare

An Iranian Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC) spokesman has said the October 7 attacks were revenge for the assassination of General Qasem Soleimani by US forces in 2020. Hamas, however, denies this.^[209]

The IRGC reportedly worked with Hamas to plan the 7 October attack and gave the green light to launch the assault on a meeting in Beirut on 2 October.^[210] In the weeks leading up to the attack, some 500 fighters from Hamas and Palestinian Islamic Jihad received training in Iran, under the guidance of the IRGC Quds Force.^[211]

Iranian officials publicly boasted for years about their role in arming militants in Gaza, and a 2020 US State Department report said Iran funnels $100 million a year to Hamas.^[212]

7 October attack

Approximate situation on 7–8 October

The attack took place during the Jewish holidays of Simchat Torah and Shemini Atzeret on Shabbat,^[213] and one day after the 50th anniversary of the start of the Yom Kippur War, which also began with a surprise attack.^[214] At around 6:30 a.m. IDT (UTC+3) on 7 October 2023,^[190] Hamas announced the start of what it called "Operation Al-Aqsa Flood", stating it had fired over 5,000 rockets from the Gaza Strip into Israel within a span of 20 minutes. Israeli sources reported that at least 3,000 projectiles had been launched from Gaza. At least five people were killed by the rocket attacks.^{[215][216][217]} Explosions were reported in areas surrounding the strip and in cities in the Sharon Plain including Gedera, Herzliyya,^[218] Tel Aviv, and Ashkelon.^[219] Air raid sirens were activated in Beer Sheva, Jerusalem, Rehovot, Rishon Lezion, and Palmachim Airbase.^[220] Hamas issued a call to arms, with commander Mohammad Deif calling on "Muslims everywhere to launch an attack" and to "kill them [the enemy] wherever you may find them".^[221][217]

Hamas employed tactics such as using aerial drones to disable Israeli observation posts, paragliders for infiltration into Israel, and motorcycles, which was unusual for Hamas.^[222] Palestinian militants opened fire on Israeli boats, while clashes broke out between Palestinians and the Israel Defense Forces along the Gaza perimeter fence.^[220] In the evening, Hamas launched another barrage of 150 rockets towards Israel, with explosions reported in Yavne, Givatayim, Bat Yam, Beit Dagan, Tel Aviv, and Rishon Lezion.^[216]

Simultaneously, around 3,000 Hamas militants^[223] infiltrated Israel from Gaza using trucks, pickup trucks, motorcycles, bulldozers, speedboats, and paragliders.^{[214][190][208]} They took over checkpoints at Kerem Shalom and Erez, and created openings in the border fence in five other places.^[224] Images and videos showed armed and masked militants, riding pickup trucks^[219][225] and opening fire in Sderot. Other videos display Israelis taken prisoner, a burning Israeli tank,^[226][217] and militants driving Israeli military vehicles.^[219]

Hamas has also stated that its attack was in response to the blockade of the Gaza Strip, the expansion of illegal Israeli settlements, rising Israeli settler violence and recent escalations at Al-Aqsa.^{[150][151][152]} Intelligence and security officials from multiple Western countries say that Hamas initiated the war in order to create a "permanent" state of war and to revive interest in the Palestinian cause.^[227][228]

Towns and rural settlements

Further information: Battle of Sderot and Battle of Sufa

For a more comprehensive list, see List of engagements during the 2023 Israel–Hamas war § Surprise attacks on 7 October.

Satellite view of widespread fires in Israel on 7 October 2023^[218]

A blood-stained home floor in the aftermath of the Nahal Oz massacre in Nahal Oz, Israel

Militants killed civilians at Nir Oz,^[225] Be'eri, and Netiv HaAsara, and other agricultural communities, where they took hostages^[235] and set fire to homes.^[218] This resulted in widespread fires and smoke across the region.^[218] 52 civilians were killed in the Kfar Aza massacre, 108 in the Be'eri massacre (a loss of 10% of the kibbutz's population) and 15 in the Netiv HaAsara massacre,^{[236][237][238]} in what has been described as the bloodiest day in Israel's history and the worst single-day massacre of Jews since the Holocaust.^[238] In Sderot, gunmen targeted civilians and set houses ablaze. In Ofakim, hostages were taken during Hamas's deepest incursion.^[239][238] Hamas said it took prisoners to force Israel to release Palestinian prisoners.^[240] In Be'eri, Hamas militants took up to 50 people hostage.^[241] Videos showed hostages being led barefoot across a street in the town.^[242] Hamas also massacred at least 325 and injured many more at an outdoor music festival near Re'im and took at least 37 attendees hostage.^{[69][243][244][245]} Witnesses recounted militants on motorcycles opening fire on participants who were already fleeing due to rocket fire.^[246][247] Graeme Wood reported that the video footage retrieved from the body cameras of Hamas militants displayed several victims "in the beginning of the footage they are alive, by the end they're dead. Sometimes, in fact frequently, after their death their bodies are still being desecrated."^[248]

Around 240 people were taken hostage during the attacks, mostly civilians.^[241][249] Captives in Gaza include children, festivalgoers, peace activists, caregivers, elderly people, and soldiers.^[250]

An Israeli spokesman said militants had entered Israel through at least seven locations from both land and sea,^[214] and invaded four small rural Israeli communities, the border city of Sderot, and two military bases.^[208] Israeli media reported that seven communities came under Hamas control, including Nahal Oz, Kfar Aza, Magen, Be'eri, and Sufa,^[251] and there were 21 active high-confrontation locations in southern Israel.^[252]

Hamas and the Palestinian Authority denied the massacre, stating that Israeli helicopters and fighter jets were behind the high number of casualties.^[253][254] An Israeli Police investigation stated that the first helicopters at the scene arrived hours after the massacre began, and that they were likely responsible for only a few friendly fire casualties.^[253][69]

In Be'eri, an Israeli tank fired on a house known to contain around 40 Hamas fighters and 14 hostages, among them 2 children; only one of the hostages in the house survived.^[255][256] The families of those killed demanded an investigation.^[257] A Ynet article stated that there was an "immense and complex quantity" of friendly-fire incidents during the 7 October attack that "it would not be morally sound to investigate" given their number and the challenges soldiers were facing at the time.^[70][258] In January 2024, an investigation by Israeli newspaper Yediot Ahronoth concluded that the IDF had in practice applied the Hannibal Directive, ordering all combat units to stop "at all costs" any attempt by Hamas terrorists to return to Gaza with hostages.^[259] It is unclear how many hostages were killed by friendly fire as a result of the order.^[259]

Initial Israeli counter-operation (7–27 October)

Destruction of the residential Palestine Tower in Gaza following an Israeli airstrike

Aftermath of a Hamas rocket hit on the maternity ward of Barzilai Medical Center, a hospital in Ashkelon, Israel, on October 8, 2023^[270]

Remains of the Sderot police station, following recapture by IDF

The Israeli General Staff confers during a meeting on 8 October 2023

After the initial breach of the Gaza perimeter by Palestinian militants, it took hours for the Israeli military to respond by sending troops to counter-attack.^[271] The first helicopters sent to support the military were launched from the north of Israel, and arrived at the Gaza Strip an hour after fighting began.^[243] They immediately encountered difficulty in determining which outposts and settlements were occupied, and distinguishing between Palestinian militants and the soldiers and civilians on the ground.^[243] The helicopter crews initially sustained a high rate of fire, attacking approximately 300 targets in 4 hours. Later on the crews began to slow down the attacks and carefully select targets.^[243] According to Haaretz's journalist Josh Breiner, a police source said that a police investigation indicated an IDF helicopter which had fired on Hamas militants "apparently also hit some festival participants" in Re'im music festival massacre.^[69] The Israeli police denied the Haaretz report.^[272]

Subsequent investigation has determined that militants had been instructed not to run so that the air force would think they were Israelis.^[243] This deception worked for some time, but pilots began to realize the problem and ignore their restrictions. By around 9:00 a.m., amid the chaos and confusion, some helicopters started laying down fire without prior authorization.^[243]

The attack appeared to have been a complete surprise to the Israelis.^[273] Prime Minister Netanyahu convened an emergency gathering of security authorities, and the IDF launched Operation Swords of Iron in the Gaza Strip.^[274][216] In a televised broadcast, Netanyahu said, "We are at war".^[208] He threatened to "turn all the places where Hamas is organized and hiding into cities of ruins", called Gaza "the city of evil", and urged its residents to leave.^[275][150] Netanyahu and Defense Minister Yoav Gallant conducted security assessments at IDF headquarters in Tel Aviv.^[225][219] Overnight, Israel's Security Cabinet voted to act to bring about the "destruction of the military and governmental capabilities of Hamas and Palestinian Islamic Jihad".^[276] The Israel Electric Corporation, which supplies 80% of the Gaza Strip's electricity, cut off power to the area.^[219] This reduced Gaza's power supply from 120 MW to 20 MW, provided by power plants paid for by the Palestinian Authority.^[277]

The IDF declared a "state of readiness for war",^[216] mobilized tens of thousands of army reservists,^[190][219] and declared a state of emergency for areas within 80 kilometers (50 mi) of Gaza.^[251] The Yamam counterterrorism unit was deployed,^[252] along with four new divisions, augmenting 31 existing battalions.^[214] Reservists were reported deployed in Gaza, in the West Bank, and along borders with Lebanon and Syria.^[278]

Residents near Gaza were asked to stay inside, while civilians in southern and central Israel were "required to stay next to shelters".^[219] The southern region of Israel was closed to civilian movement,^[252] and roads were closed around Gaza^[214] and Tel Aviv.^[219] While Ben Gurion Airport and Ramon Airport remained operational, multiple airlines cancelled flights to and from Israel.^[279] Israel Railways suspended service in parts of the country and replaced some routes with temporary bus routes,^[280][281] while cruise ships removed the ports of Ashdod and Haifa from their itineraries.^[282]

Israeli blockade and bombardment

Further information: 2023 Israeli blockade of the Gaza Strip

Aftermath of an Israeli airstrike on the El-Remal area of Gaza City, October 9, 2023

Approximate situation on 9 October

Following the surprise attack, the Israeli Air Force conducted airstrikes that they said targeted Hamas compounds, command centers, tunnels, and other targets.^{[216][251][283]} Two days after the surprise attack, Israel said that 426 Hamas targets had been hit, including destroying Beit Hanoun, homes of Hamas officials, a mosque, and an internet hub.^{[283][284][285][286]} Israel also rescued two hostages before declaring a state of war for the first time since the 1973 Yom Kippur War.^[287][288] Defense Minister Gallant announced a "total" blockade of the Gaza Strip, cutting off electricity and blocking the entry of food and fuel, adding "We are fighting human animals and we are acting accordingly".^[289] This drew criticism from Human Rights Watch who described the order as "abhorrent" and as a "call to commit a war crime".^[290] The first aid convoy after the start of the war entered Gaza on 21 October 2023,^[291] while fuel entered Gaza only in November.^[292]

The IDF later deployed C-130 and C-130J transport aircraft to retrieve off-duty personnel from abroad.^[293]

As a part of a bombing run targeting Hamas command centers and weapon caches, the IDF stated that it had bombed the Nukhba forces—a Hamas special forces unit that is thought to have led the attack on Israel.^[294]

Human Rights Watch accused Israel of using white phosphorus munitions over Gaza on 10 and 11 October, stating that it violated international law.^[295] Israel denied the allegations.^[296]

17 October

Further information: al-Ahli Arab Hospital explosion and October 2023 UNRWA school airstrike

A man carries the body of a Palestinian child killed during the shelling of 17 October 2023

On 17 October, Israel bombed in areas of southern Gaza.^[314] Ministry of Health officials in Gaza reported heavy overnight bombing killing over 70 people, including families who had evacuated from Gaza City in the north.^[315] One of the airstrikes killed a senior Hamas military commander Ayman Nofal.^[316] In the afternoon, an Israeli strike hit a UNWRA school in the Al-Maghazi refugee camp, killing six and injuring 12.^[317]

Wounded child and man receive treatment on the floor at Al-Shifa Hospital in Gaza City

Late in the evening, an explosion occurred in the parking lot of the Al-Ahli Arabi Baptist Hospital in the center of Gaza City, burning some nearby vehicles. The cause of the explosion was disputed by Hamas and the IDF, and the ongoing conflict prevented independent on-site analysis.^[318] Palestinian statements that it was an Israeli airstrike were denied by the IDF, which stated that the explosion resulted from a failed rocket launch by Palestinian Islamic Jihad.^[319] The PIJ denied any involvement.^[320][321] An independent analysis by Human Rights Watch indicated that the evidence pointed to a misfired Palestinian rocket as the cause, but stated that further investigation was required.^[322]

On 18 October, President Biden said the Pentagon had independently concluded that the explosion was not caused by Israel, but by "the other team", based on data from the Defense Department.^[323] Over the next few days, Canadian, British, and French officials announced that their respective intelligence agencies concluded the cause to be a failed Palestinian rocket and not an Israeli airstrike.^{[324][325][326]} In its article dated 2 November, CNN stated that multiple experts said "they believe this to be the most likely scenario – although they caution the absence of munition remnants or shrapnel from the scene made it difficult to be sure. All agreed that the available images of evidence of the damage at the site was not consistent with an Israeli airstrike."^[327]

Invasion of the Gaza Strip until the truce (27 October–24 November)

Israeli soldiers preparing for the ground invasion of the Gaza Strip on 29 October

On 27 October, the IDF launched a large-scale ground incursion into northern Gaza. Clashes between Hamas and the IDF were reported near Beit Hanoun and Bureij.^[328] The Israeli invasion of Gaza was confirmed after Israel said its units were still in Gaza the next day.^[329] Hamas leader Ali Baraka said the invading Israeli forces suffered heavy casualties and loss of equipment due to an ambush.^[330] Two days later, Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus, the head of the World Health Organization (WHO), described as "deeply concerning" reports from the Palestinian Red Crescent that the al-Quds hospital had received an urgent evacuation warning. He reiterated that it was "impossible to evacuate hospitals full of patients without endangering their lives".^[331] Israeli airstrikes targeted the area around the hospital, filling parts of the building with smoke and dust, prompting staff to give breathing masks to some patients.^[332] Around 14,000 civilians were believed to be sheltering in or near the hospital.^[332] Associated Press reported that Israeli airstrikes also destroyed roads leading to the Al-Shifa hospital, making it increasingly difficult to reach.^[333]

Three days following the beginning of ground operations, a video showed an Israeli tank firing on a taxi with a white flag on its roof that had attempted to turn around. An IDF spokesperson said they were "not shown any proof" that the vehicle was civilian, adding, "terrorists use civilian infrastructure like cars."^[334]

External videos
Gazan child speaks of having to carry decapitated body after Israeli strike on Jabalia (via The Irish Times)

The following day, the IDF struck at densely-populated Jabalia refugee camp, killing 50 and wounding 150 Palestinians according to the Hamas run Gaza Health Ministry. According to Israel, a senior Hamas commander and dozens of militants in a vast underground tunnel complex were among those killed. Hamas denied the presence of a senior commander on the scene.^{[335][336][337]} According to the IDF, the destruction of the tunnels caused the collapse of the foundations of several nearby buildings, leading to their collapse.^[338] Eyewitnesses interviewed by CNN and Der Spiegel spoke of "apocalyptic" scenes, with dozens of collapsed buildings, children carrying other injured children, and bodies lying in the rubble.^{[339][340][341]} The nearby Indonesian Hospital's surgical director said they had received 120 dead bodies and treated 280 wounded, the majority of them women and children.^[342] The attack resulted in several ambassador recalls (see § Ambassador recalls).^{[343][344][345]} Josep Borrell, the High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy, wrote on the social media platform X that he was "appalled by the high number of casualties" from the bombing.^[346] According to The New York Times at least two 2,000-pound bombs, the second largest type in Israel's arsenal, were used.^[347]

IDF tanks on operations in the Gaza Strip on 31 October

On 1 November, the first group of evacuees left Gaza into Egypt. 500 evacuees, comprising critically wounded and foreign nationals, would be evacuated over the course of several days, with 200 evacuees already waiting at the border crossing.^[348] On the same day, the Jabalia refugee camp was bombed for a second time; the UN Human Rights Office expressed "serious concerns" that these were "disproportionate attacks that could amount to war crimes".^[349][350] The IDF released what it stated was an intercepted call between Hamas operatives and the head of the Indonesia Hospital, where they discuss diverting some of the hospital's fuel supply to Hamas.^[351]

Two days later, the Gaza health ministry stated that Israel struck an ambulance convoy directly in front of Al-Shifa Hospital, killing at least 15 people and injuring 60 more.^[352] The IDF acknowledged having launched an airstrike at "an ambulance that was identified by forces as being used by a Hamas terrorist cell in close proximity to their position in the battle zone", adding that a "number of Hamas terrorist operatives were killed in the strike".^[353] The IDF did not provide evidence that the ambulances were being used by Hamas combatants but said that additional information would be released.^[353] A Hamas official described the Israeli statement as "baseless".^[353] The Palestinian Red Crescent Society (PRCS) said one of its ambulances was struck "by a missile fired by the Israeli forces" about two metres from the entrance to al-Shifa hospital.^[353] The PRCS said another ambulance was fired on about a kilometre from the hospital.^[353] WHO chief Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus said on X that he was "utterly shocked by reports of attacks on ambulances evacuating patients", adding that patients, health workers and medical facilities must always be protected.^[352][354]

On 4 November a UNRWA spokeswoman confirmed reports that Israel had conducted an airstrike against a UN-run school in the Jabalia refugee camp.^[355] According to the Gaza health ministry, the attack killed 15 and wounded dozens more.^[355] Turkey recalled its ambassador to Israel "in view of the unfolding humanitarian tragedy in Gaza caused by the continuing attacks by Israel against civilians, and Israel's refusal (to accept) a ceasefire". President Recep Tayyip Erdogan told reporters he held Netanyahu personally responsible for civilian deaths in Gaza and said that he was "no longer someone we can talk to".^[356]

Abu Ubaida, the spokesperson for the Izz el-Deen al-Qassam Brigades, reported that due to Israeli air strikes, the bodies of 23 missing Israeli hostages were buried under the rubble.^[357][358]

External videos
Instagram videos by Ahmed Hijazi of the Al-Shifa Hospital strike shown in the Visual Investigations report published by The New York Times.[359] Contains graphic images of severe injury.
A video of the airstrikes and immediate injuries.
Shows dead and injured in the aftermath.

Fighting continued through the middle of November and on 18 November Israeli strikes killed more than 80 people in Jabalia refugee camp.^[360] On 22 November, Israel and Hamas reached a temporary ceasefire agreement, providing for a four-day "pause"^[361] or "lull"^[362][363] in hostilities, to allow for the release of 50 hostages held in Gaza.^[361][362] The deal also provided for the release of approximately 150 Palestinian women and children incarcerated by Israel.^[362] The agreement was approved by the Israeli cabinet in the early hours of the day; in a statement, the Israeli Prime Minister's Office stated Israel's intention to continue the war.^[361][362]

Duration of the truce (24 November–1 December)

Following the introduction of a Qatari-brokered truce on 24 November, starting at 7:00 AM Israel time, active fighting in the Gaza Strip ceased and some of the Israeli and foreign hostages were released by Hamas in exchange for the release of some of the Palestinian political prisoners held by Israel. The truce was announced for a period of four days, but was extended for a longer period.

From 24 to 30 November, Hamas released hostages and Israel released prisoners. On 27 November, Qatar announced that an agreement between Israel and Hamas to extend the truce by two days had been reached.^[364] Both Israel and Hamas accused each other of violating the truce on 28 November. On 30 November, Hamas released two more hostages as the truce, which was supposed to end minutes later, was extended by another day.^[365]

Resumption of hostilities (1 December 2023–present)

Merkava Mk IV on a Gaza street, 4 January 2024

The truce expired in the morning on 1 December, as both Israel and Hamas blamed the other side for failing to agree on an extension. According to the New York Times, the disagreement centered on "how to define soldiers versus civilians and how many Palestinian prisoners Israel would release for its hostages".^[366] A Hamas official said that after the exchange, the only remaining hostages were "soldiers and civilian men who served in the occupation army", and refused to exchange them until "all our prisoners are freed and a ceasefire takes hold".^[367] US National Security Advisor John Kirby said that "Hamas agreed to allow the Red Cross access to these hostages while the pause was in place," which did not "happen and is still not happening".^[368]

Israel adopted a grid system to order precise evacuations within Gaza, released a map online, and dropped leaflets with a QR code for the link. The maps were criticized for being hard to access due to the lack of electricity and internet connectivity, and for causing confusion or panic. Some evacuation instructions have been vague or contradictory,^{[369][370][371][372]} and Israel has struck areas it had told people to evacuate to.^[373][374]

Experts said they had not seen significant changes in Israeli prosecution of the war due to its warnings to civilians appearing ineffective and it being unclear if anywhere in Gaza is safe.^[375] Agnes Callamard, Secretary General of Amnesty International, said in a press release that "US-made weapons facilitated the mass killings of extended families". Amnesty found no evidence of military targets at the sites of the strikes, or any indication that the occupants of the homes were affiliated with Hamas, prompting the group to request that the airstrikes be investigated as possible war crimes.^[376] Several decomposed babies were found in the ICU of Al-Nasr Children's Hospital in northern Gaza, two weeks after its forced evacuation.^[377] US Secretary of Defense Lloyd Austin warned against replacing "a tactical victory with a strategic defeat" if Israel does not work towards protecting Palestinian civilians.^[378] The US State Department said it was too early to definitively assess whether Israel was heeding US calls to protect civilians.^[379]

The IDF reported that its troops had reached the centers of Khan Younis, Jabalia, and Shejaiya reporting the most "intense fighting" since the ground invasion of Gaza began.^[380] Intensified bombing pushed Palestinian civilians further south to Rafah.^[381]

On 7 December, Israel detained 150 men in the Gaza Strip, with dozens more detained on 10 December. According to Israel, the detentions followed a mass surrender of Hamas militants.^[382][383] The New York Times reported that the statement about Hamas fighters surrendering was made after video and photographs of "men stripped to their underwear, sitting or kneeling on the ground, with some bound and blindfolded" were seen on social media.^[384]The Guardian reported that among the people seen in the images were people identified as civilians, among them a journalist. The ICRC said it was concerned by the images and that it strongly emphasized "the importance of treating all those detained with humanity and dignity, in accordance with international humanitarian law".^[385] The BBC reported that a video of the apparent surrender of weapons is unclear whether a man is "surrendering" weapons or just moving them as instructed, suggested the event was performed for the camera, rather than as an act of authentic surrender, and that it not known whether the individuals shown have any involvement with Hamas or the 7 October attack.^[386] Haaretz reported that Israeli security officials believed that approximately 10–15% of the people shown in the video were actually affiliated with Hamas, and that despite the public statements by Israel that this was not a "massive surrender" by Hamas units.^[387] Amnesty International described the treatment of those detained on 7 December as a violation of international law.^[95]

On 8 and 9 December, the IDF released footage of what it said was its soldiers engaging combatants near and inside two schools in Shejaiya. According to the IDF, fighters also discovered a tunnel leading from one of the schools to a nearby mosque.^[388][389] It also released footage of armament that it stated was found on the campus of Al-Azhar University, along with a tunnel shaft leading to a school 1 km away.^[390] The Israeli military said that, since it designated a humanitarian zone for civilians in the Gaza Strip on October 18, 116 rockets had been fired from there toward Israel, including 38 falling inside Gaza.^[391]

The Pentagon announced on 9 December that the Biden administration had authorized the sale of around 14,000 rounds of tank ammunition to Israel without congressional authorization by using emergency powers.^[392] On 29 December, it did so again to supply Israel with $147.5 million worth of artillery shells and related items.^[393]

On 15 December, the IDF released a statement announcing that they had killed three of their own hostages by friendly fire. According to the Israeli military, they "mistakenly identified three Israeli hostages as a threat" during operations in Shuja'iyya and subsequently fired at them, killing them.^{[394][395][396]} According to an Israeli military official on 16 December, the three hostages were shirtless and were carrying "a stick with a white cloth on it” when an Israeli soldier, who declared them to be “terrorists” after feeling “threatened”, opened fire, killing two hostages and injuring the third, who was killed by Israeli reinforcements.^[397]

In an interview to the Wall Street Journal on December 25, Netanyahu said that Israel's objectives were to "destroy Hamas, demilitarize Gaza and deradicalize the whole of Palestinian society."^[398]

On 29 December, South Africa filed a case against Israel at the International Court of Justice, alleging that Israel's conduct amounted to genocide.^[399][400] South Africa asked the ICJ to issue provisional measures, including ordering Israel to halt its military campaign in Gaza.^[399] South Africa was one of five countries making a referral of the war to the ICC in November 2023.^[401]

On 1 January 2024, Israeli forces withdrew from neighbourhoods in North Gaza, including Sheikh Radwan, al-Mina district and parts of Tel al-Hawa.^[402] On 6 January, the Israeli government claimed that Hamas control over the northern part of the Gaza Strip had been dismantled.^[403]

West Bank

West Bank sector of war

  West Bank Palestinian enclaves (Areas A & B)

  West Bank under Israeli control (Area C)

  Israeli-annexed Jerusalem/East Jerusalem

Even before the war, 2023 was the deadliest year for Palestinians in the West Bank in 20 years. From 7 to 31 October, B'tselem said that Israeli forces had killed more than 100 Palestinians while Israeli settlers had killed at least seven, leading to fears that the situation would escalate out of control.^[405] About 1,000 Palestinians have been forcibly displaced by settlers since 7 October and almost half of clashes have included "Israeli forces accompanying or actively supporting Israeli settlers while carrying out the attacks" according to a U.N. report.^[407] According to the West Bank Protection Consortium, which is funded by the European Union, since the 7 October attacks six Palestinian communities have been abandoned due to the violence.^[408]

By 10 October, confrontations between rock-throwing Palestinians and Israeli forces had left 15 Palestinians dead, including two in East Jerusalem.^[409] On 11 October, Israeli settlers attacked the village of Qusra, killing four Palestinians. A 16-year-old was fatally shot by the IDF in Bani Naim, while another person was shot dead by the IDF near Bethlehem.^[410] On 12 October, two Palestinians were killed after Israeli settlers interrupted a funeral procession for Palestinians killed in prior settler attacks and opened fire.^{[411][412][413]}

On 18 October, protests broke out over the al-Ahli Arab Hospital explosion, with clashes reported in Ramallah.^[414] In Jenin, a 12-year-old girl was shot dead by crossfire from Palestinian Authority security forces, and another youth was injured by PA forces in Tubas. One Palestinian was killed in confrontations with Israeli forces in Nabi Saleh, and 30 others were injured across the West Bank.^[415] On 19 October, more than 60 Hamas members were arrested and 12 people were killed in overnight Israeli raids across the West Bank. Those arrested included the movement's spokesperson in the West Bank, Hassan Yousef.^[416]

On 22 October, Israel struck the al-Ansar Mosque in Jenin, saying that it had killed several "terror operatives" from Hamas and Islamic Jihad who were planning attacks inside.^[417] Within a few days Ayser Mohammad Al-Amer, a senior commander of the Palestinian Islamic Jihad was killed during a clash with IDF in the Jenin refugee camp.^[418] On 31 October, the IDF engaged Hamas around Shuweika.^[419]

On 1 November, Issa Amro stated the situation in the West Bank had become "very hard", noting "All the checkpoints are closed. Israeli settlers and soldiers are acting violently with the Palestinians."^[420] The UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs warned Israeli settler violence against Palestinians was on the rise.^[421]

On 30 November, two Palestinian gunmen killed three and wounded eleven Israelis at a bus stop on the Givat Shaul Interchange in Jerusalem. Hamas claimed responsibility.^[422]

Israel–Lebanon border

Northern Israel sector of war

  Israel

  Israeli-occupied Golan Heights

  Hezbollah presence in Lebanon

  Syria

  Areas ordered evacuated by Israel

A series of border clashes occurred along the Israel-Lebanon border. On 8 October, Hezbollah launched an artillery attack on Israeli positions in Shebaa Farms; this was met with immediate retaliation.^[423][424] Skirmishes have occurred every day since. The clashes resulted in the deaths of 89 Lebanese militants and nine Israeli soldiers,^[425][426] as well as 19 Lebanese and three Israeli civilians,^[427][428] one Lebanese Army soldier,^[429] and the displacement of 55,000 people in Lebanon and tens of thousands more in Israel.^[430][431]

Syria

From 12 to 22 October, Israel launched at least three attacks on airports in Syria, particularly on Damascus and Aleppo,^[432][433] killing two workers from the Syrian meteorology service based at Damascus International Airport.^[434]

On 24 October, Israeli airstrikes in Daraa Governorate reportedly resulted in the death of eight Syrian soldiers and injuries to seven others, as per Syria's state-run news agency SANA. The IDF acknowledged the airstrikes, stating they were a response to two rockets fired from Syria into Northern Israel.^[435]

On 20 December, four rockets were fired from Syria at the Israeli-occupied Golan Heights, setting off sirens in Mas'ade and Ein Qiniyye. The IDF shelled the source of the fire and targeted a Syrian Army position in response.^[436]

Iraq

On 2 November, the Islamic Resistance In Iraq claimed responsibility for an attack against a "vital Israeli target" on the Dead Sea coastline in retaliation to Israeli attacks on Palestinian civilians in Gaza. In a statement later that day, the group stated it would continue to "strike enemy strongholds."^[437]

On 3 November, the Islamic Resistance In Iraq claimed responsibility for a missile attack on Eilat.^[438] On 12 November, it claimed responsibility for another missile attack on Eilat.^[439]

On 21 December, the Islamic Resistance In Iraq claimed responsibility for a drone attack on Eilat which was reportedly intercepted by the Royal Jordanian Air Force.^[440] It also claimed responsibility for a drone attack on the Karish rig hours after the attack on Eilat which was intercepted by IDF fighter jets.^[441]

On 28 December, the Islamic Resistance In Iraq claimed responsibility for a drone attack near Eli-ad in the southern part of the Israeli-occupied Golan Heights.^[442]

On 31 December, the Islamic Resistance In Iraq claimed responsibility for two drone attacks on the Golan Heights which were intercepted by Israeli fighter jets.^[443] A few hours after the drone attacks on Golan Heights, they claimed responsibility for a drone attack on Eilat which was intercepted by the IDF.^[444]

On 7 January, the Islamic Resistance In Iraq claimed responsibility for an attack on an Israeli base in the Golan Heights and a cruise missile attack on a 'vital target' on Haifa Bay.^[445][446]

Yemen and the Red Sea

Houthi attacks on commercial ships in the Bab-el-Mandeb strait

Several strikes against Israel and commercial ships in the Red Sea are thought to have launched by Iran-backed Houthi militants in Yemen.^{[447][448][449]} On 19 October, the United States Navy destroyer USS Carney shot down several missiles that were traveling north over the Red Sea towards Israel.^[450] On 31 October, Houthi military spokesperson Yahya Saree said that the group had launched ballistic missiles and drones towards Israel, and that they would continue to do so "to help the Palestinians to victory"^[451] in an event that has been misrepresented in some news sites as a declaration of war by Yemen.^[452] On 19 November, tensions increased when the Galaxy Leader, a cargo ship chartered by a Japanese logistics company with 25 individuals on board, was hijacked by the Houthis using a Mil Mi-17 helicopter.^[453]

On 3 December, the Houthis stated that they had attacked two ships, the Unity Explorer and Number 9, allegedly linked to Israel, in order "to prevent Israeli ships from navigating the Red Sea".^[454][455] Any ship destined for Israel, according to the group, was a "legitimate target". Saree announced in a post on X that the "horrific massacres" against the Palestinians in Gaza was the reason for this decision and that they will not stop until the Gaza Strip is supplied with food and medicine. Israeli National Security Adviser Tzachi Hanegbi called this development a "global issue" and that Israel is "giving the world some time to organize in order to prevent this" otherwise, the country "would will act in order to remove this naval siege".^[456]

Iran

On 24 November, a suspected Iranian drone attacked the CMA CGM Symi owned by Israeli billionaire Idan Ofer in the Indian Ocean according to a US defense official. The drone was suspected to have been a Shahed-136 drone. The attack caused damage to the ship but did not injure any of the crew.^[457]

In December, the US military was reportedly looking to build a maritime task force to protect trade against Iranian harassment.^[458]

On 23 December, a suspected Iranian drone attacked the Israel-affiliated oil tanker MV Chem Pluto in the Indian Ocean, off the coast of Gujarat. The attack did not harm any of its 20 crew members but caused a fire that was put out. The vessel was reportedly carrying Saudi oil to Mangalore, India.^[459]

In December, Iranian proxy militias escalated their attacks against the US military following the killing of one of its generals in Syria in an Israeli attack.^[460]

Casualties

Aftermath of the attack on Be'eri

As of 11 January, over 24,000 people (23,469 Palestinian and 1,200 Israeli) have been killed in the Israel–Hamas war, including 82 journalists (75 Palestinian, 4 Israeli and 3 Lebanese) and over 136 UNRWA aid workers.^[467][468]

On 7 October 2023, 1,139 Israelis and foreign nationals, including 764 civilians, were killed, and 248 persons taken hostage during the initial attack on Israel from the Gaza Strip.^{[469][241][249]} Since then, over 20,000 Palestinians (the majority of whom were women and children) in the Gaza Strip have been killed according to the Gaza Health Ministry, which does not distinguish between combatant and civilian casualties in its reports.^[470][471] A further 320 Palestinians were killed in the West Bank by Israel military and settlers.^[472] Casualties have also occurred in other parts of Israel, as well as in southern Lebanon, and Syria.^[473]

Monitoring group Action on Armed Violence said that each Israeli airstrike caused an average of 10.1 civilian deaths and that the figure suggested a notable change in Israel's targeting approach. The previous Israeli campaigns in Gaza produced the averages of 1.3–1.7, while in the sieges of Mosul, Aleppo the ratio exceeded 20 civilian casualties per airstrike.^{[474][475][476]} Israel uses an AI system known as Gospel for its targeting process and experts are sceptical that such a system reduces civilian harm.^[477][478]

The rate of killing exceeds that of US-led attacks in Iraq, Syria and Afghanistan, which were widely criticized by rights groups.^[479] The first month of the war has been the deadliest conflict for children this century.^[480]

Multiple generations of families have been killed in Israeli attacks. As of October 31, Amnesty International has documented five cases of entire families being killed in Israeli airstrikes.^[481] The Associated Press reported that the killing of entire families in single airstrikes by Israel has "raised troubling questions about Israeli military tactics."^[482] As of 15 October, 47 families had been completely wiped away from the population registry, according to the Palestinian Ministry of Health.^[483] The Financial Times reported how Palestinian families could have multiple generations living in a single multistory building has had the effect of those families being nearly completely wiped out by airstrikes. As of 23 November, according to Gazan health officials, 312 families had suffered the loss of more than 10 members. This had also led to children being left without any surviving family, with the acronym "WCNSF" for "wounded child, no surviving family" being increasingly used.^[484]

Healthcare collapse

External videos
Emily "Cali" Callahan, an American nurse who worked in Gaza for Doctors Without Borders until early November, describes the humanitarian situation in Gaza to CNN's Anderson Cooper[485][486]

Hospitals faced a lack of fuel and relied on backup generators for the first two weeks of the war.^[487] By 23 October, however, the Indonesia Hospital ran out of fuel and completely shut down.^[488] Hospitals around Gaza also warned they would soon lose power completely, which would lead to the death of 140 premature babies in NICUs.^[489] The Gaza Health Ministry said that more than 192 medical staffers had been killed by Israeli airstrikes, as well as ambulances, health institutions, its headquarters, the Rimal Clinic, and the International Eye Center.^[490] The Médecins Sans Frontières said it had counted 18 ambulances destroyed and eight medical facilities destroyed or damaged.^[491] On 24 October, a Health Ministry spokesman announced the healthcare system had "totally collapsed".^[492]

On 16 October, doctors warned of disease outbreaks due to hospital overcrowding and unburied bodies.^[462] The World Health Organization stated the situation was "spiralling out of control".^[493] The Palestinian Red Crescent reported that it had lost contact with its headquarters on 27 October, disrupting Gazans' ability to contact emergency services.^[494]

On 14 November, Reuters reported that Israel was coordinating the transfer of medical incubators to al-Shifa hospital in order to assist in the evacuation of newborn babies^[495][496] and that the IDF stated that three battery powered incubators were on standby outside Gaza.^[497] The director of Al-Shifa stated Israel's statement about providing incubators to premature babies was false.^[498]

Gazan malnourishment

According to the World Food Program, as of 9 December more than half of the population of Gaza was "starving" and more than nine in ten were not eating everyday and 48% suffering from "extreme hunger".^[499][500] One of the few bakeries that had still been standing in the Gaza Strip was destroyed in an Israeli airstrike in Deir al-Balah overnight, and Gazans were reported to be searching through the rubble of bombed bakeries attempting to find bags of flour.^[501] The United Nations has warned that a collapse of social order could result from the intense hunger among Palestinians.^[501] The Associated Press reported that rare instances of public dissent against Hamas were taking place, with reports of angry chants against Hamas by hundreds of people taking refuge in a UN shelter.^[502]

Palestinian Foreign Minister Riyad al-Maliki, who is part of the Palestinian Authority, said Israel was using starvation as a weapon, saying "they are starving because of Israel's deliberate use of starvation as a weapon of war against the people it occupied." An Israeli official responded that the charge was "blood-libellous" and "delusional".^[503] Human Rights Watch similarly found that Israel was using starvation as a weapon of war by deliberately denying access to food and water.^[504]

Scale of destruction

The scale, extent, and pace of destruction of buildings in the Gaza Strip ranks among the most severe in modern history.^{[79][505][506][81][507]}The 29,000 munitions -shells and bombs- Israel has dropped on Gaza in 3 months greatly exceed those (3,678) dropped by the United States between 2004 and 2010 during its Invasion of Iraq.^[508] Nearly 70% of homes in Gaza and roughly half of all buildings have been damaged or destroyed.^[505] The damage to buildings in northern Gaza reportedly exceeds that in Bakhmut and Mariupol in the Russian invasion of Ukraine,^[81] Aleppo in the Battle of Aleppo,^[79] and Mosul and Raqqa in the War against the Islamic State;^[79] by 5 December 2023, the percentage of buildings damaged or destroyed in Gaza exceeded Dresden and Cologne during World War II and approached the level of destruction seen in Hamburg.^[81][509] Bombing has destroyed or damaged apartment buildings, hospitals, schools, religious sites, factories, and shopping centers.^[505] The Guardian reported that the scale of destruction has led international legal experts to raise the concept of domicide, which it describes as "the mass destruction of dwellings to make [a] territory uninhabitable."^[506]

Definitively assessing the extent of destruction in Gaza has been complicated by difficulties in accessing up-to-date satellite imagery.^[510] An analysis by The Washington Post found "apparent craters within 180 meters of 17 of the 28 hospitals in northern Gaza", although this represents "a conservative undercount of the actual bombs dropped near Gaza's hospitals".^[79] This analysis focused on bombs weighing 2,000 pounds or more, which could irreparably damage a building 180 meters away.^[79] Israel has employed unguided munitions, which are particularly destructive, and has used artificial intelligence to quickly identify targets for bombing.^[81]

Responses to crisis

On 20 October, Doctors Without Borders stated it was "deeply concerned for the fate of everyone in Gaza right now".^[511] On 21 October, a joint statement by UNICEF, WHO, UNDP, UNFPA, and WFP stated, "the world must do more" for Gaza.^[512] On 26 October, the World Organization stated Gaza's humanitarian and health crisis had "reached catastrophic proportions".^[513] On 28 October, the Red Cross president Mirjana Spoljaric Egger stated she was "shocked by the intolerable level of human suffering".^[514] During the course of the first month of the war, the Gaza Ministry of Health recorded more than 4,000 children killed in Gaza.^[515] UN General Secretary António Guterres said on 6 November that Gaza is "fast becoming a graveyard for children". Israeli UN Ambassador Gilad Erdan responded directly to Guterres, stating "Shame on [Guterres]... More than 30 minors – among them a 9-month-old baby as well as toddlers and children who witnessed their parents being murdered in cold blood – are being held against their will in the Gaza Strip. Hamas is the problem in Gaza, not Israel's actions to eliminate this terrorist organization."^[516][517] On 8 November, UN Human Rights chief Volker Turk described the Rafah Crossing as "gates to a living nightmare".^[518] On 10 November, spokesman for the UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) Jens Laerke stated, "if there is a hell on earth, it is the north of Gaza."^[519]

Retired Israeli major general Giora Eiland compared Israel's situation to that of the United States after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941.^[520] He argued that if Israel wanted to disarm Hamas, it had "no choice" but to make Gaza a place "that is temporarily or permanently impossible to live in".^[521][520] This, he stated, was not a "program for revenge", but a way to get the hostages back.^[522]

On 18 October, the United States UN representative Linda Thomas-Greenfield vetoed a UN Security Council resolution urging humanitarian aid to Gaza.^[523] On 27 October, the UN General Assembly voted overwhelmingly for a resolution on immediate humanitarian truce in Gaza and aid access.^[524] The resolution attracted 121 votes in favor and 44 abstentions; 14 countries voted against, namely Israel, the United States, Austria, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Fiji, Guatemala, Hungary, Marshall Islands, Micronesia, Nauru, Papua New Guinea, Paraguay and Tonga.^[525][526]

On 9 November, Israel agreed to daily four-hour "humanitarian pauses" to allow civilians to obtain food and medicine, as well as evacuate to the south.^[527] Evacuees described the evacuation path as full of death and horror.^[528][529] Jan Egeland, the Secretary General of the Norwegian Refugee Council, said on 5 December that "The pulverising of Gaza now ranks amongst the worst assaults on any civilian population in our time and age. Each day we see more dead children and new depths of suffering for the innocent people enduring this hell".^[530]

On 12 December, the UN General Assembly once again voted overwhelmingly for a resolution on immediate humanitarian truce in Gaza and aid access. The resolution attracted 153 votes in favor and 23 abstentions; 10 countries voted against, namely Israel, the United States, Austria, the Czech Republic, Guatemala, Liberia, Micronesia, Nauru, Papua New Guinea and Paraguay.^{[531][lower-alpha 23]}

7 October 2023 Hamas attack on Israel

Following Hamas attack

Both Hamas and the IDF have been accused of attempted or imminent genocide, and several other war crimes, based on their actions in this war.^[533]

The International Criminal Court issued a statement on 10 October confirming that its mandate to investigate alleged war crimes committed since June 2014 in the State of Palestine extends to the current conflict.^[562] ICC prosecutor Karim Ahmad Khan visited the Rafah crossing and said "the ICC is independently looking at the situation in Palestine," including "events in Israel and allegations that Palestinian nationals have also committed crime." The UN Human Rights Council said it had "clear evidence" of war crimes by both sides.^[562] The Permanent United Nations Fact Finding Mission on the Israel Palestine conflict said there is "clear evidence that war crimes may have been committed in the latest explosion of violence in Israel and Gaza, and all those who have violated international law and targeted civilians must be held accountable".^{[563][564][565]}

In a 12 October preliminary legal assessment condemning Hamas's attacks in Israel, international humanitarian law scholar and Dean of Cornell Law School Jens David Ohlin said the evidence suggested Hamas's "killings and kidnappings" potentially violated Articles 6–8 of the Rome Statute as well as the Genocide Convention and were "crimes against humanity"; over a hundred international scholars expressed support for this position.^[566][567]

Ceasefire

On 24 October, UN Secretary-General António Guterres called for a ceasefire.^[598][599] This was followed by a United Nations General Assembly vote for a resolution calling for an immediate truce. It received 121 votes in favor and 44 abstentions; 14 countries voted no.^[525][600]

On 24 October, US President Joe Biden stated, "We should have those hostages released and then we can talk",^[601] and said that a ceasefire would allow Hamas to attack Israel again.^[602] On 2 November 2023, Hamas chairman Ismail Haniyeh stated that if Israel agreed to a ceasefire and the opening of humanitarian corridors to bring more aid into Gaza, Hamas is "ready for political negotiations for a two-state solution with Jerusalem as the capital of Palestine."^{[603][lower-alpha 25]} This followed the 1 November statement by Hamas official Ghazi Hamad that Hamas would repeat the 7 October attack time and again until Israel is annihilated.^[606] On 3 November, Benjamin Netanyahu stated Israel would not agree to a ceasefire unless Hamas releases all hostages.^[607] On 6 November, both Israel and Hamas rejected calls for a ceasefire.^[608] On 15 November, Hamas official Izzat al-Risheq stated Israel was "stalling to continue its aggression and war against defenceless civilians."^[609]

By 13 December 2023, Israel and the United States were becoming increasingly isolated amid growing global calls for a ceasefire.^{[101][102][103][610]}

In December, new negotiations mediated by Egypt led to proposals of a multi-phase plan that would see the release of hostages, withdrawal of Israeli forces from Gaza and creation of a technocratic Palestinian government.^[611] Hamas and Palestinian Islamic Jihad rejected a permanent ceasefire offer which would have Hamas and the PIJ relinquish their control over Gaza and hold democratic elections.^[612][613]

Hostage negotiations

On 9 October, Reuters reported that Qatar was mediating talks between Israel and Hamas to secure the release of female Israeli hostages in exchange for Israel releasing 36 Palestinian women and children.^[614] Israel publicly denied such negotiations were taking place.^[614] An Egyptian official told the Associated Press that Israel sought Egyptian assistance to ensure the safety of hostages held by Palestinian militants, and that Egypt's intelligence chief contacted Hamas and Islamic Jihad to seek information.^[615] Egyptian officials were reportedly mediating the release of Palestinian women in Israeli prisons in exchange for Israeli women captured by Palestinian militants.^[284] Egypt and Qatar are both trying to mediate talks; according to The Wall Street Journal, Hamas's military wing mostly communicates to Egypt.^[616]

According to The Guardian, an early offer involved the release of "children, women and elderly and sick people" held hostage in exchange for a 5-day ceasefire, and Netanyahu "rejected the deal outright". More recent offers, after the 27 October ground offensive, involved the release of 10–15 hostages in exchange for a 1–3 day ceasefire. According to The Guardian, Netanyahu, right-wing ministers, and "hawks in the military" took a hardline position on the talks, unlike the Mossad, which leads the hostage negotiations.^[617]

The Abducted and Missing Families Forum, an Israeli group representing the families of those taken hostage in Gaza, said that they supported a blanket release of all Palestinian prisoners in exchange for the return of all Israeli hostages held in Gaza.^[618] The leader of Hamas in the Gaza Strip, Yahya Sinwar, said the group was prepared to release all Israeli hostages in return for the release of all Palestinian prisoners. The IDF spokesman dismissed the report as "psychological terror cynically used by Hamas to create pressure".^[619]

United Nations Security Council

A map that shows the countries and their respective voting in the United Nations General Assembly resolution ES-10/21 calling for an "immediate and sustained" humanitarian truce and cessation of hostilities.

  In favor

  Against

  Abstentions

  Absent

  Non member

On 8 October, the United Nations Security Council (UNSC) held a closed-door meeting for 90 minutes on the conflict. The meeting concluded without a joint statement being agreed.^[620] The Council passed a resolution calling for a humanitarian pause on 15 November.^[621] Israel's ambassador to the UN called the resolution "disconnected from reality", and stated that "Israel will continue acting according to [international] law while the Hamas terrorists will not even read the resolution... let alone abide by it".^[107] On 6 December, United Nations secretary-general Antonio Guterres invoked Article 99 of the Charter of the United Nations for the first time, which allows him to address matters that threaten "international peace and security" before the UN Security Council.^[622][623]

Diplomats, concerned that Israel has no plan post war and looking to limit the humanitarian crisis as well as prevent any regional expansion of the war, are urging delay of a full-scale land invasion of Gaza.^[624] Russia requested a UNSC vote on 15 October on a draft resolution calling for a humanitarian ceasefire.^[625] The Russian draft was rejected while negotiations continued on a Brazilian draft resolution.^[626]

On 18 October, the United States vetoed a UNSC resolution that "condemned the Hamas attack on Israel, called for humanitarian pauses in all attacks to allow the delivery of lifesaving aid to civilians, and called for Israel to withdraw its directive for civilians to evacuate the northern part of the Gaza Strip". The UNSC resolution, sponsored by Brazil and supported by 12 of the 15 Council members, calling for "humanitarian pauses" to deliver aid to Gazan civilians. The UK and Russia abstained.^[627][628] Louis Charbonneau at Human Rights Watch said the US had again "cynically used their veto to prevent the UNSC from acting on Israel and Palestine at a time of unprecedented carnage". The US Ambassador to the UN, Linda Thomas-Greenfield, explained that the US wanted more time to let American on-the-ground diplomacy "play out", and criticized the text for failing to mention Israel's right to self-defense, in line with the UN Charter – a point echoed by UK Ambassador to the UN Barbara Woodward.^{[629][630][631]} Subsequently, on 25 October, China and Russia vetoed a US drafted resolution and a Russian drafted resolution was vetoed by the UK and US.^[632]

On 15 November, the UNSC passed a resolution focusing on the humanitarian situation, calling for the immediate release of all hostages held by Hamas and for urgent and extended humanitarian corridors throughout Gaza to save and protect civilian lives.^[633] Malta drafted the resolution; twelve members voted in favor, none against and three abstained. The United Kingdom and United States abstained, while they supported the emphasis on humanitarian relief, because it contained no explicit criticism of Hamas. Russia abstained because it did not call for an immediate ceasefire. The resolution followed four unsuccessful efforts the previous month, and a United Nations General Assembly Resolution calling for a cessation of hostilities on 27 October.^[634][635]

World leaders, Amnesty International, Human Rights Watch and United Nations officials criticized the US for its veto on 8 December of a UNSC resolution calling for an immediate humanitarian ceasefire. The UK abstained while the remaining 13 members of the council voted in favor.^{[636][637][638]} In response to the US veto, Egypt invoked Resolution 377A, which allows the UN General Assembly to address an issue threatening global security neglected by the UNSC.^[639]

Ambassador recalls

On the afternoon of Israel's 31 October airstrike on the Jabalia refugee camp, Bolivia severed all diplomatic ties with Israel, followed by a series of ambassador recalls by Chile and Colombia hours later, Jordan on 1 November, Bahrain on 2 November, Honduras on 3 November, Turkey on 4 November, Chad on 5 November, South Africa on 6 November, and Belize on 14 November. Bolivia's minister of the presidency demanded an end to the attacks on the Gaza Strip, while Chilean President Gabriel Boric cited Israel's "collective punishment of the Palestinian civilian population" and Columbian President Gustavo Petro cited the "massacre of the Palestinian people".^[640][641] Jordan's Foreign Minister cited an "unprecedented humanitarian catastrophe" and condemned the "Israeli war that is killing innocent people in Gaza".^[395][642] Bahrain's National Assembly additionally cut off all economic relations,^[643] citing a "solid and historical stance that supports the Palestinian cause and the legitimate rights of the Palestinian people."^[644][645] This decision does not appear to have been implemented.^[646] Honduras' Minister of Foreign Affairs cited Israel's violations of international humanitarian law.^[647] Turkish President Erdogan earlier had said Netanyahu was "no longer someone we can talk to".^[648] Chad cited the "unprecedented tide of deadly violence."^[649] South Africa recalled its entire diplomatic mission and criticized Israel's ambassador for disparaging those "opposing the atrocities and genocide of the Israeli government".^[650] Belize suspended diplomatic relations with Israel, citing the "unceasing, indiscriminate bombing in Gaza" and its violations of international humanitarian law.^[651]

Willingness to take refugees by third countries

Both Jordan and Egypt have rejected the idea of hosting Palestinian refugees fleeing from Gaza,^[652][653] with King Abdullah II of Jordan warning against pushing Palestinians to seek refuge in Jordan, and emphasizing the need to address the humanitarian situation within Gaza and the West Bank.^[654] Both countries have expressed serious concern that Israel may seek to permanently expel Palestinians, a statement that Israel disputes.^[655] On 2 November, however, Egypt said it will help around 7,000 foreigners and Palestinians with dual-nationalities through the Rafah border crossing.^[656]

Scotland's First Minister, Humza Yousaf, who has family in Gaza, urged the international community to establish a refugee program for those fleeing violence in Gaza and said that Scotland was ready to offer sanctuary to refugees arriving in the UK.^[657] European countries are wary of a refugee influx due to recent pro-Palestinian protests.^[658]

In the United States, Representative Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez suggested that the problem of refugees be solved by "the region's partners", but emphasized the "historical role" of the US in accepting refugees, while Representative Jamaal Bowman said that the US should welcome refugees who are not affiliated with Hamas. Both former President Donald Trump and Governor Ron DeSantis oppose accepting any Palestinian refugees.^[653]

Israel

Volunteers organizing deliveries for soldiers in Nesher

Support sign for the "citizens of south" and IDF soldiers at the policeperson roundabout in Ra'anana, October 2023

Public opinion poll conducted on 23–28 October by the polling company iPanel in collaboration with Tel Aviv University found that 57.5% of Israeli Jews believed the Israeli military was using "too little" firepower in Gaza, while 36.6% thought the amount of firepower was "appropriate", 4.2% were not sure, and only 1.8% thought the IDF was using "too much" firepower. In contrast, 50.5% of Israeli Arabs believed that the Israeli military was using "too much" firepower in Gaza.^[659] According to a survey by the Israel Democracy Institute, only 10% of Israeli Jews would support a pause in the war in Gaza to allow an exchange of Israeli hostages.^[659]

Following the Hamas attack on Israel, the protest group Kaplan Force cancelled its protest against the Israeli judicial reform scheduled on 7 October, instead extending support to the IDF amidst the crisis.^[660] Other protest groups like Forum 555 and Brothers in Arms also urged reservists to serve if called up.^[213] The Israeli government distributed weapons to civilians.^[661]

Some construction sites in Jerusalem prohibited Israeli Arabs from entering due to security concerns, including senior managers, stating that only Jews and foreign workers were permitted.^[662]

Adalah, an Israeli human rights organization that advocates for Palestinians living in Israel, reported that 50 Palestinians studying at academic institutions in Israel had been summoned to disciplinary committees due to perceived support for Hamas on social media, with some suspended from their studies.^[663] A newly created community coalition said that 30 Palestinian citizens of Israel had lost their jobs for the same reason.^[663]

Adalah also reported that 100 Israelis have been arrested for posts supporting Palestinians in Gaza, with 70 in detention as of 18 October.^[664] Dalal Abu Amneh, a Palestinian singer born in Israel, was arrested on 17 October for posting "there is no victor but God" in Arabic, alongside an image of the Palestinian flag.^[665] She was released the following day and placed under house arrest for five days.^[666] Israeli police said that 170 Palestinians (all citizens of Israel or residents of Jerusalem) had been arrested or brought in for questioning since the beginning of the war due to social media posts. According to Adalah, this is the highest rate of arrests in such a short period of time for 20 years.^[663] Content that led to these arrests included quoting Quran verses, "prayers for the people of Gaza, and political analysis of Israeli military operations".^[664]

Between 1 October and 1 November, the number of Palestinians held in administrative detention, without charge or trial, rose from 1,319 to 2,070.^{[667][668][669]} Prisoners have been subject to torture and at least four prisoners have died in Israeli custody.^{[667][668][670]}

Amidst the escalating violence, Magen David Adom initiated a blood donation drive and the Education Ministry closed schools on 7 October, transitioning to online learning from 15 October.^[671] Various events and performances were cancelled or postponed including the Haifa International Film Festival, a Bruno Mars concert, and football matches scheduled by UEFA.^[672] The Israeli energy ministry ordered Chevron to temporarily shut down the offshore Tamar gas field.^[673] Following a significant drop in the value of the New Israeli Shekel, the Bank of Israel announced that it would sell up to $30 billion in foreign reserves in its first ever sale of foreign exchange.^[674]

Investigations were initiated into the failure of Israeli authorities to prevent the attack, with criticism targeted towards Prime Minister Netanyahu for his inability to foresee and prevent the crisis.^[675][676]

To support the war effort, El Al announced special flights to retrieve vital personnel from New York City and Bangkok on 13 October.^[677] Schools advised parents to have certain social media apps deleted from their children's phones to shield them from violent war-related media.^[678] IDF Chief of Staff Lieutenant General Herzi Halevi acknowledged military failures in preventing the attacks on 12 October.^[679]

The ethics panel of the Knesset voted to suspend left-wing politician Ofer Cassif for 45 days over what it deemed as anti-Israel statements in interviews he made after the war broke out. Following a rally in support of Gaza in Haifa, police commissioner Kobi Shabtai threatened to send antiwar protesters to the Gaza Strip. As of 18 October 63 people have been arrested in Israel on suspicion of supporting or inciting "terror" since the start of the conflict, according to Israeli police.^[680] The Palestinian prisoners' rights group Addameer said that about 4,000 labourers from Gaza who were working in Israel were arrested by Israeli authorities along with 1,070 other Palestinians in overnight raids in the West Bank and East Jerusalem since the start of the conflict, with most of the detainees from Gaza being held in Sde Teyman near Beersheba.^[681] Amer al-Huzail, a former mayoral candidate in Rahat, was arrested after sharing a map of the Gaza Strip on social media with an analysis of possible scenarios for an expected ground operation by Israeli forces.^[682]

A poll by the Israeli newspaper Maariv, conducted on 18–19 October, found that 65% of Israelis supported a ground invasion of the Gaza Strip and 21% opposed it.^[683] In comparison, according to a poll conducted for the same newspaper on 25–26 October, 29% of Israelis supported an immediate large-scale ground offensive into the Gaza Strip. Maariv said "It is almost certain that the developments on the matter of the hostages, which is now topping the agenda, have had a great impact on this shift."^[684] The Hostages and Missing Families Forum, that represents the families of kidnapped Israelis, complained that no-one had explained "whether the ground operation endangers the well-being" of the hostages.^[685]

According to a survey carried out by the Hebrew University on 7–9 December on the post-war handling of Gaza 56% of Israelis opposed the annexation of Gaza with only 33% in favor while 11% were uncertain. When questioned on who should administer Gaza in the immediate post-war period 23% of Israelis supported a coalition of moderate Arab states, 22% for Israeli military rule, 18% for an international force take charge of the territory, 18% for Israel annexing Gaza and 11% support for the return of the Palestinian Authority.^[686] The Direct Polls survey found that 83% of Israelis supported encouraging the voluntary emigration of residents of the Gaza Strip.^[687] According to a poll published by the Israel Democracy Institute, 91% of Israeli Jews and 24% of Israeli Arabs believe that the IDF is making an effort to follow international law.^[688]

Palestinian territories

Gaza

Reactions in Gaza ranged from anger at the international community's tepid response to fear.^[703][704] The territory faced numerous major crises. The Israeli blockade caused significant difficulties, including a lack of food, medicine, and water.^[705] Azmi Keshawi, a US-educated researcher in Gaza, expressed outrage, stating, "How the hell did the entire world just watch and let Israel turn off the water?"^[706]

Some Gazans in Israel on work permits were unable to return to Gaza.^[707] In interviews, workers indicated they were subject to intensive police questioning and abuse.^[708] Speaking to The Washington Post, one man stated, "I can't stay here, eating and drinking while my children are dying. There is no electricity or water or anything. Let me die there between my children".^[708]

Due to the Israeli Air Force's airstrikes, many Gazans expressed fears they could die. In an interview, a US citizen said, "People are worried, people are essentially preparing to die".^[709] Muhammad Smiry, a journalist, wrote, "We are losing everyone and everything".^[710] A 27-year-old engineer said, "I just really, really want to live".^[711]

West Bank

Initially, Palestinian President Mahmoud Abbas asserted the Palestinians' right to self-defense against the "terror of settlers and occupation troops"^[735] and condemned the orders by Israel for residents to evacuate north Gaza, labeling it a "second Nakba".^[736] Later, Abbas rejected the killing of civilians on both sides, and said that the Palestinian Liberation Organization was the sole representative of the Palestinians.^[737]

Following the attack, celebrations occurred in Nablus.^[738] France 24 reported "Hamas called on "resistance fighters in the West Bank" to join the battle.^[739] Neighborhood watches were established in 50 locations amid fears of reprisals by Israeli settlers, while a general strike was called for 8 October.^[216] Seven Palestinians were killed in clashes with Israeli forces on 7 October,^[739] while 126 others were injured.^[216] As of 19 October, Al Jazeera reported that 76 Palestinians were killed in the West Bank and Jerusalem, eight of them by armed Israeli settlers;^[740] the Palestinian Health Ministry said that 61 people have been killed and 1,250 injured in the West Bank.^[741] The Palestinian Prisoners Club said that 850 Palestinians, including lawmakers, prominent figures, journalists, and former detainees have been arrested by Israeli authorities since the start of the war.^[416]

Arab world

In contrast to previous Palestinian–Israeli wars, as many Arab governments such as Egypt and Jordan had strongly negative views on Hamas,^[742] they restrained their official reaction to neutral press statements, while news programs in the United Arab Emirates and Saudi Arabia interviewed Arabic-speaking Jews instead of Hamas officials. News anchors in these countries did not refer to the IDF as an "occupation army", and referred to Palestinian casualties as "victims" rather than "martyrs".^[743] The public reaction in the Arabic world was much more negative, being strongly influenced by Hamas-produced social media videos that were viewed millions of times.^[744] The Al-Ahli Arab Hospital explosion, originally blamed on an Israeli airstrike, inflicted further damage on diplomatic relations between Israel and Arab states keen to avoid antagonizing their public.^[745]

Governments and news programs such as Al Arabiya and Sky News Arabia increasingly took an anti-Israel and pro-Hamas stance.^[744] Many in Lebanon, Syria and Egypt also fear that they may unwillingly be drawn in to the conflict through the actions of Hezbollah and Iran. In Egypt populist pro-government talk show hosts have opposed Hamas, asking why Egyptians should suffer to help Palestinians.^[743] Egypt, despite having being pressed by the United States, refused to accept refugees from Gaza.^[746]

A joint Islamic-Arab summit in Riyadh on 11 November 2023 called for the International Criminal Court to investigate "war crimes and crimes against humanity that Israel is committing" in the Palestinian territories and for an immediate end to the fighting in Gaza.^[747] The summit was attended by dozens of leaders including Iranian President Ebrahim Raisi, Turkish President Tayyip Erdogan, Qatar's Emir Sheikh Tamim bin Hamad Al Thani and Syrian President Bashar al-Assad, who had been welcomed back into the Arab League earlier in 2023.^[747] Prince Mohammed bin Salman expressed "condemnation and categorical rejection of this barbaric war against our brothers in Palestine".^[747]

Many across the Middle East, particularly among the younger population, have been boycotting US brands for perceived complicity in the destruction in Gaza since the start of the war.^[748]

Hezbollah

Hezbollah denied knowledge of the attacks and warned the United States not to invade Lebanon, saying that they were prepared to face the US military.^[749][750] In a speech on 3 November, Hezbollah leader Hassan Nasrallah said Americans had threatened to bomb Iran,^[751] and emphasized that Hezbollah had entered the war the day after Hamas's attack and that it would not stop its ongoing skirmishes with Israel.^[752] He stated that the United States was fully responsible for the current war against Gaza and its people, and that Israel was merely the "instrument of execution." He also said that anyone who wants to prevent a regional war must immediately stop the aggression against Gaza.^[753][754]

Iran

Iran has praised the attack while being cautious to distance itself from its planning and execution.^[755] Hamas spokesman Ghazi Hamad told the BBC that Hamas had direct backing for the attack from Iran;^[756][757] European, Iranian and Syrian officers corroborated Iran's involvement,^[758][759] while senior Hamas official Mahmoud Mirdawi said the group planned the attacks on its own.^[321] The Israeli army and the United States say that there is no evidence that Iran is connected with the attack by Hamas.^[760] American intelligence appeared to show that Hamas's attack on Israel caught Iranian authorities by surprise.^[761]

According to a report by Al-Monitor, since the start of the war between Israel and the Gaza militias, Iran has tried to show a face of disinterest in the spillover of the conflict, and on the other hand, it has pursued an active diplomatic campaign to isolate Israel. Supporting the cause of Palestine has been one of the ideological principles of Iran's Shia Islamic theocracy after the 1979 revolution,^[762] with Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, the first supreme leader of Iran, announcing the last Friday of every Ramadan as "Quds Day"^[763] and inviting all the Muslims of the world to express solidarity with the legitimate rights of the Palestinian Muslim people.^[764]

The Iranian government opened an account for people to deliver charitable aid.^[765] It also opened a website and reported that more than six million volunteered to fight.^[766] Supreme Leader Ayatollah Ali Khamenei threatened that Islamic resistance was going to become unstoppable should the war continue.^[767] His spokesperson later said that the 2015 Iran nuclear deal would have delayed it but Israel would have collapsed within five years.^[768] Khamenei pointed to foreign visits to Israel and said that the fall of Israel was imminent.^[769]

The Iranian Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC) said that the IDF would be depleted through the ground invasion of Gaza.^[770]

Addressing the United Nations, Iranian foreign minister Hossein Amir-Abdollahian warned Americans they would be unsafe if the conflict did not remain under control.^[771] US military forces conducted strikes on two facilities in eastern Syria used by the IRGC.^[772] President Joe Biden warned Khamenei not to attack the US military.^[773]

On 1 November, the Iranian government criminalized expressions of support for Israel and making contact with its people.^[774][775] That same day, Khamenei called on Muslim states to impose a food and fuel blockade on Israel.^[776]

On 15 November, Reuters and the Telegraph reported that Iran's Supreme Leader, Ayatollah Ali Khamenei, conveyed to Hamas leader Ismail Haniyeh during their November meeting in Tehran that Iran would not directly intervene in the conflict with Israel, citing lack of prior warning about the 7 October attack. Despite this, Iran pledged to continue providing political and moral support to Hamas, urging restraint against calls for direct involvement by Iran and its ally Hezbollah.^[777][778] The IRGC's Quds Force promised it would continue supporting Hamas,^[779] while the IRGC's commander General Hossein Salami said that the war would bring about a political and economic decline of the US.^[780][781]

The Municipality of Tehran announced that it would help rebuild Gaza after the conflict.^[782]

Following the US veto of a UN Security Council resolution calling for a ceasefire in the Gaza Strip, Hossein Amir-Abdollahian called the threat of war by any party as uncontrollable.^[783]

The IRGC said that the 7 October attack was done by Hamas in revenge for the killing of its head, Qassem Soleimani in 2020, which Hamas denied.^[784]

United States

Polling has indicated a divide between official government policy on the Israel–Hamas war and the viewpoints of the general public.^[785] A large majority of Americans support an immediate ceasefire in the conflict. A plurality of Americans oppose American military aid to Israel and believe that the United States "should be a neutral mediator".^[785] A Gallup poll found that 50% of respondents supported Israel's actions in Gaza, while 45% disapproved.^[786]

US Secretary of Defense Lloyd Austin with Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu and Minister of Defense Yoav Gallant in Tel Aviv, Israel, 13 October 2023

Hours after Hamas's attack, US President Biden promised "rock-solid and unwavering" support to Israel and called Hamas's attack "unadulterated evil", comparing the group to ISIS.^[787] To replenish Israel's stockpiles, the US said it would send Iron Dome missiles, small bombs, and JDAM conversion kits, in addition to fulfilling previous contracts to deliver F-35 fighter jets, CH-53 helicopters, and KC-46 air refueling tankers.^[788] Biden also called on Congress to pass $14.3 billion in emergency military aid to Israel.^[788][789] Details of weapons sent to Israel, which have been arriving daily, have been kept secret. Leaked details have shown that the US has sent laser-guided missiles, 155mm shells, new army vehicles, among others, at Israel's request.^[790]

While the US says it is discussing with Israel about ways to minimize civilian casualties, the Pentagon said it would impose no limits on Israel's use of American weapons in the war.^[788] Annie Shiel of the Center for Civilians in Conflict expressed concerns, saying that America is responsible for ensuring that "its assistance does not contribute to devastating civilian harm and possible violations of international humanitarian law".^[788] Foreign Policy reported on a "groundswell of opposition" among US diplomats and national security officials, against what they perceived as Biden's "blank check" for the Israeli counterattack.^[791] "More than 630 employees" of the US Agency for International Development signed a letter calling for an "immediate ceasefire".^[792] US State Department official Josh Paul, who spent more than 11 years as the director of congressional and public affairs at the bureau overseeing arms transfers to foreign nations, resigned in protest at the US government's decision to send weapons to Israel.^[793]

US Defense Secretary Lloyd Austin ordered the deployment of the United States Navy's Carrier Strike Group 12—led by the aircraft carrier USS Gerald R. Ford, and supported by the cruiser USS Normandy and the destroyers USS Thomas Hudner, USS Ramage, USS Carney, and USS Roosevelt—to the Eastern Mediterranean. The United States Air Force augmented its F-35, F-15, F-16, and A-10 fighter squadrons in the region,^[794] reportedly to deter other actors from entering the conflict.^[795]

On 15 October, it was reported that a US naval strike group composed of the aircraft carrier USS Dwight D. Eisenhower, the guided missile cruiser USS Philippine Sea and the guided missile destroyers USS Laboon, USS Mason and USS Gravely was deployed to the eastern Mediterranean.^[796] Austin also ordered that approximately 2,000 troops be prepared for possible deployment to Israel, according to several defense officials.^[797]

On 17 October, it was reported that a US naval group consisting of the amphibious assault ship USS Bataan, the amphibious transport dock USS Mesa Verde and the dock landing ship USS Carter Hall, was deployed to the eastern Mediterranean and the Red Sea to transport the 26th Marine Expeditionary Unit in case they were needed in the area.^[798]

The USS Dwight D. Eisenhower and USS Gerald R. Ford carrier strike groups in November 2023

On 19 October, the US Department of Defense announced that the USS Carney had shot down three cruise missiles and eight drones that were northbound over the Red Sea. They said the missiles had been fired by Houthi rebels in Yemen and may have been en route to Israeli targets.^[799][800]

After multiple drone and rocket attacks on military bases in Iraq that house US troops, the US ordered all non-emergency staff to leave their embassy in Baghdad and consulate in Erbil on 22 October.^[801] A few days earlier, a false alarm in Al-Asad Airbase caused the death of a civilian contractor from cardiac arrest.^[802] Secretary of State Antony Blinken threatened Iran that its attacks would not be tolerated.^[803]

US officials said the Biden administration advised Israel to delay the ground invasion of the Gaza Strip to allow more time for hostage negotiations.^[804] President Biden said that attacks on Israel were intended in part to scuttle the potential normalization of the US ally's relations with Saudi Arabia. He mentioned that Hamas attacks aimed to halt Israel-Saudi Arabia agreement.^[805]

On 4 November, the Defense Department confirmed that it was flying reconnaissance drones over Gaza in "support of hostage recovery efforts".^[806]

The Republican-controlled House of Representatives on December 5 passed a resolution that included language that said the House "clearly and firmly states that anti-Zionism is antisemitism." and which condemned the slogan "From the river to the sea". Yasmine Taeb, the human rights attorney and Democratic National Committee official said "The intent of these members is to smear and silence peace activists calling to end the massacre of Palestinian children and families."^[807]

On December 10, Israeli National Security Adviser Tzachi Hanegbi said that the United States had not given Israel any deadline to complete military operations in Gaza, and that "they understand that they are not in a position to tell the IDF how long it needs in order to achieve the goals".^[808]

Also in December, Biden criticized Israel's war cabinet and called on Netanyahu to replace it.^[809] Later on White House National Security Council spokesperson John Kirby declared that some of the steps the IDF has taken to prevent civilian casualties in Gaza might go further than what the United States would have done if it were in Israel's place.^[810]

United Nations

On 12 December 2023, the UN General Assembly passed Resolution ES-10/22 calling for an immediate ceasefire and the "immediate and unconditional" release of the hostages.

  In favor

  Against

  Abstentions

  Absent

  Non member

On 25 October, UN General-Secretary António Guterres called for a ceasefire, during a speech in which he stated that the attacks by Hamas "did not happen in a vacuum" and needed to be understood in the context of 56 years of Israel's "suffocating occupation" of Palestinians, further stating, "the grievances of the Palestinian people cannot justify the appalling attacks by Hamas. And those appalling attacks cannot justify the collective punishment of the Palestinian people."^[811][812] Israel responded by saying it would ban UN representatives from Israel to "teach them a lesson", and called for the General-Secretary's resignation.^[813][814] The Secretary General rejected the Israeli accusations.^[815]

On 27 October, the United Nations General Assembly passed Resolution ES-10/21 calling for an immediate and sustained humanitarian truce and cessation of hostilities and condemned "all acts of violence against Palestinian and Israeli civilians, including all acts of terror and indiscriminate attacks", adopted by a vote of 121 states to 14, with 44 abstentions.^[816]

In remarks to the Security Council, UN Secretary-General Guterres expressed deep concern at "clear violations of international humanitarian law" in Gaza and also said, "It is important to also recognise the attacks by Hamas did not happen in a vacuum. The Palestinian people have been subjected to 56 years of suffocating occupation", leading the Israeli ambassador Gilad Erdan to call for Guterres's resignation.^{[817][818][812]} Following this, Guterres said that he was "shocked by the misrepresentations" of his statement, pointing out he had also said "... the grievances of the Palestinian people cannot justify the appalling attacks by Hamas."^[819][820]

On December 12, the UN General Assembly voted to demand "immediate humanitarian ceasefire". The resolution passed overwhelmingly with 153 votes for, 23 neutral and 10 against.^[821]

International

Solidarity with Israelis in Berlin, Germany on 8 October

Solidarity with Palestinians in Melbourne on 15 October

  Countries that have condemned the 2023 Hamas-led attack on Israel as a terrorist attack

International leaders from Argentina,^[822] India,^[823] Philippines,^[824] the United States, and European countries condemned the attacks by Hamas, expressed solidarity with Israel, said Israel has a right to defend itself from armed attacks and described Hamas's tactics as terrorism.^[825][826] South Korea condemned Hamas and called Hamas's attack "indiscriminate"; expressed worries that despite missile interceptor defense systems it would remain vulnerable if North Korea attempted a similar attack on South Korea.^[827] Most Latin American governments condemned Hamas's attacks in Israel, while some, such as Colombia, expressed solidarity with Palestinians.^[828] The European Union announced it would review aid to Palestinian authorities to ensure the aid was not funding terrorism, and subsequently announced that immediate humanitarian aid to Gaza would be tripled.^[829][830]

Austria, Germany, and Sweden suspended development aid to Palestine in response to Hamas's attack and said that they would review other projects and aid given.^{[831][832][833]} Germany sent two Heron TP drones to Israel.^[834][835] On 8 November 2023, the German Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs announced that the German government had authorized a tenfold increase in arms exports to Israel; the export of military equipment to Israel would be treated and approved as a priority. Exports worth around 32 million euros in all of 2022 rose to almost 303 million euros in 2023, most of which was authorized after the start of the war.^[836] Heads of the World Uyghur Congress^[837] and the Uyghur Human Rights Project condemned Hamas while East Turkistan Government-in-Exile minister Salih Hudayar declared support for Israel.^[838] Croatia's president Zoran Milanović publicly stated that Israel had lost his sympathy due to its humanitarian crimes and "reprisal actions" in Gaza.^[839] Colombian president Gustavo Petro likened IDF attacks against Palestinians to Nazis and asked the Israeli ambassador to "apologize and leave the country".^[840] Spain's deputy prime minister Yolanda Díaz called on the international community to put pressure on Israel to stop what she called a massacre in Gaza.^[841] On multiple occasions, Pope Francis referred to Israel's actions in Gaza as "terror" and "terrorism".^[842]

Responses from African governments varied, showing division about the source of the conflict and who is to blame. However, most expressed grief and deep concerns about the outbreak of violence, with condemnations of attacks against civilians and calls for restraint and de-escalation to prevent further loss of Israeli and Palestinian lives.^[843]

As many as 20,000 Thai workers (around half of Israel's migrant work force) live all over Israel, including areas close to Gaza.^[844] Thailand's Ministry of Foreign Affairs said their stance towards "the deadly Hamas-led attack against Israel is one of neutrality, and the Kingdom promotes a solution that would allow Palestine and Israel to coexist".^[845]

US Secretary of State Antony Blinken and Israeli President Isaac Herzog in Tel Aviv, Israel, 12 October 2023

Queen Rania of Jordan said leaders of Western countries had double standards and were "complicit" in civilian suffering in Gaza.^[846]

A summit in Amman hosted by King Abdullah II that was also to be attended by Biden, Palestinian president Mahmoud Abbas and Egyptian president Abdel Fattah el-Sisi was cancelled by the Jordanian government on 18 October, in response to the Al-Ahli Arab Hospital explosion.^[847] On the same day, China said Palestinians had been forced to move south because of Israel's evacuation order "only to suffer from air strikes in the south as well" and called the hospital explosion a "heinous attack"^[848] while Russia labeled the explosion as a war crime, saying that the US was ultimately responsible.^[849]

On 31 October, Bolivia severed diplomatic relations with Israel due to what the deputy foreign minister called "the aggressive and disproportionate Israeli military offensive".^[850] Several other countries followed suit in severing relations with Israel.^[851] South Africa, Bangladesh, Bolivia, Comoros and Djibouti submitted a referral to the International Criminal Court asking for an investigation into possible war crimes by Israel in the Palestinian territories.^[852]

Economic impact

On 9 November, the Bank of Israel reported that the drop in labor supply caused by the war was costing the Israeli economy $600 million a week, or 6% of weekly GDP.^[875] However, the bank also stated that the estimate does not reflect total damage and did not include damages caused by the absence of Palestinian and foreign workers.

Criticism from journalists

Over 750 journalists signed an open letter condemning "Israel's killing of reporters in Gaza and criticizing Western media's coverage of the war." The letter said newsrooms are "accountable for dehumanizing rhetoric that has served to justify ethnic cleansing of Palestinians." Signers of the letter were criticized for potentially impeding their organizations' ability to gather news, and could face management backlash,^[876] Semafor reported that Los Angeles Times journalists who signed the letter were barred from covering the Gaza war "in any way" for at least three months.^[877]

On 13 November, 11 international news organizations sent a letter to Israel and Egypt, asking for access to the Gaza Strip in order to cover the war.^[878]

CBS reported on 14 December a statement of the International Federation of Journalists noting that "the number of journalists killed in the past two months in the war in Gaza has surpassed the amount killed in the Vietnam War, which lasted two decades".^[879] More than 50 Palestinian journalists lost their lives.^[879] Various dangerous facts such as airstrikes, but also starvation due to lack of food, risks linking for having no clean water available and shelter made that "Palestine is one of the most dangerous places for a journalist to do their job".^[879] Reporters Without Borders filed a complaint with the International Criminal Court, under section 8.2.b of the Rome Statute accusing Israel of committing war crimes against 8 journalists.^[880][881] It also lodged a complaint against Hamas, under section 8.2.a of the Rome Statute for the killing of a reporter covering the 7 October attack.^[880]

Embedded journalists with Israel

Media such as CNN, ABC, NBC, the New York Times, and Fox News — have limited access to Gaza only in presence of Israel soldiers. Vox reported that the news organizations "have to submit all materials and footage to the Israeli military for review before publication".^[881]

Censorship by Big Tech

On December 20, Human Rights Watch issued a 51-page report documenting Meta's pattern of removal and suppression of speech on Facebook and Instagram including peaceful expression in support of Palestine and public debate about Palestinian human rights.^[882]

Anonymous Sudan, a hacker group, launched a DDoS attack on ChatGPT^[883][884] for being biased against Palestine, reflecting public statements made by OpenAI's leadership dehumanizing Palestinians, calling for more intense bombing in Gaza, and advocating ethnic cleansing.^[884][885]

Early reports of atrocities on 7 October and unverified allegations

In the aftermath of the initial Hamas assault, witnesses from the Israeli soldiers, the Israeli Department Forces, and the first responder Israeli organization ZAKA said on French Israeli TV channel i24news that they had seen the bodies of beheaded infants at the site of the Kfar Aza massacre.^{[886][887][888]} During Antony Blinken's visit to Israel, he said he was shown photos of the massacre by Hamas of Israeli civilians and soldiers, and specifically that he saw beheaded IDF soldiers.^[889] U.S. President Biden separately said that he had seen photographic evidence of beheaded children; the White House subsequently clarified that Biden was alluding to news reports of beheadings, which have not contained or referred to photographic evidence.^[890] NBC News called reports of "40 beheaded babies" unverified allegations,^[890] adding that they appeared "to have originated from Israeli soldiers and people affiliated with the Israel Defense Force" and that "an Israeli official told CNN the government had not confirmed claims of the beheadings".^[890] The allegation mainly "stemmed from a viral Israeli news broadcast clip" and the main X / Twitter accounts propagating the statements were i24NEWS and Israel's official account, even though Israeli Defense spokesperson Doron Spielman told NBC News that he could not confirm i24NEWS's report.^[890] As of 12 October, CNN had extensively reviewed online media content to verify Hamas-related atrocities but found no evidence to support statements about decapitated children.^[891]

An Israeli ZAKA volunteer reported on 14 October seeing children's bodies with severe injuries and burns. Some of the bodies appeared to have been decapitated, but the exact circumstances were not clear.^[892]

According to The Jerusalem Post, which reprinted an article from the Israeli website Themedialine.org (whose founder, Felice Friedson, was praised by The Jerusalem Post and is a contributor to it^[893]), approximately 200 forensic pathologists and other experts—from Israel, Switzerland, New Zealand, the U.S. and elsewhere—reviewed evidence of the attack at the National Center of Forensic Medicine (Abu Kabir) in Tel Aviv.^[894] Chen Kugel, head of the center, said that many bodies, including those of babies, were without heads. When asked whether the bodies had been decapitated, Kugel answered yes.^[895] He added that it was difficult to determine whether the dead were decapitated before or after death, or whether their heads had been "cut off by knife or blown off by RPG".^[894]

On 24 October, Israeli authorities screened bodycam footage of Hamas atrocities for journalists, including "an attempt to decapitate someone who appeared to be still alive using a garden hoe",^[896] as well as a still image of a decapitated IDF soldier.^[265]

On 4 December, Haaretz reported that "unverified stories [had been] disseminated by Israeli search and rescue groups, army officers and even Sara Netanyahu".^[897][898] Haaretz journalists Nir Hasson and Liza Rozovsky related the chronology of the news items about "beheaded babies" and "hung babies" and concluded, "this story is false".^[897] They quoted Ishay Coen, a journalist for the ultra-Orthodox website Kikar Hashabbat, who admitted he made a mistake by unquestioningly accepting the IDF's statements.^[897] "Why would an army officer invent such a horrifying story?", Hashabbat asked, adding, "I was wrong".^[897] Haaretz also reported that some testimony came from reservist officers.^[897]