Etymology

The word "Kendari" is thought to come from a version of the word "Kandai", meaning a tool made of bamboo and wooden planks to push boats away from a dock. Over time, the pronunciation changed, and the city is now officially known as Kendari.^[5]

Early history

The Bay of Kendari has been known since the 15th century and appears on Portuguese chartered maps, marked with the name "Citta dela Baia" ("City of the Bay"). The bay was known as "Baia du Tivora" ("Tivora Bay").^[5] The Kingdom of Konawe, founded in the fifth century by the Tolaki people, ruled the settlement. Its early governmental structure was simple and resembled those of tribal societies. The kingdom had several historical periods.^[6]: 42

Its first king was Mokole Roro, who ruled the kingdom between 428 and 447, in a period known as Ancient Konawe. The kingdom was still small and did not yet rule all of today's Konawe region or Kendari city. The kingdom's capital was in Rahambuu, a town known today as Unaaha, around 60 kilometers (37 mi) from Kendari. The kingdom included three smaller kingdoms loyal to Unaaha.^[6]: 42

The Old Konawe period followed the Ancient Konawe period. It was marked by the unification and consolidation of the kingdom's power over the region. There was a huge unknown disaster, which is thought to have almost eliminated all the people in the region. According to local legend, Onggodo, a holy man, is thought to have arrived in the kingdom from the Maluku Islands. He is believed to have saved the kingdom from the unknown disaster, and later married one of the kingdom's princesses. Konawe society was divided into three classes. Anakia were nobles and the upper classes; Tononggapa were the commoners and peasants, and Oata were slaves.^{[6]: 42–43} People in the region were united by the Kalo Sara, meaning "circle of tribal laws", a religious symbol of harmony, peace, and kinship, a large bracelet made of three rattan pieces tied together on a white napkin.^[7][6]: 45 The rattan bracelet symbolized unity and the white napkin symbolized good deeds. The three pieces of rattan have various meanings and interpretations, such as father, mother, and children, or government, religion, and tradition.^[8]

Islamic period

Islam has been present in the kingdom since the early 15th century, especially after the foundation of the neighbouring Sultanate of Buton, just south of Konawe, brought by Buginese merchants from Makassar who mostly settled in coastal regions, and through trade. The kingdom officially embraced Islam during the reign of King Lakidende (1724–1786), who had embraced Islam after traveling around Western parts of Sulawesi and studying Islam in the Bone kingdom around today's South Sulawesi. During his reign, the kingdom banned things that were considered un-Islamic, such as eating pork. He promoted the construction of mosques in each village, and marriage in accordance with Islamic tradition. The kingdom's governance structure did not change significantly, and many animist traditions were incorporated with Islamic beliefs by the people. The Kalo Sara symbol was interpreted in accordance with Islamic beliefs instead of being abandoned altogether. During this period, Konawe became a multicultural society, with merchants from Java, Makassar, and Maluku settling on the island.^{[6]: 45–48}

Colonial period

A house in Kendari, 1920

In 1828, the governor of the Dutch East Indies tasked a sailor named Jacques Nicholas Vosmaer with mapping the eastern coast of Sulawesi to find a suitable location for a trading post. The first detailed map of Kendari Bay, renamed Vosmaer Bay in his honor, was published in May 1831.^[5] According to reports from Vosmaer in 1839 and another Dutch official named van der Hart in 1853, villages around Kendari Bay where current city is located are settled by Bugis and Bajo traders and fisherman between 10 and 15 years prior to his journey. The bay was an attractive location for migrants that time, due to Konawe's political condition that were relatively stable and peaceful compared to neighbouring kingdoms at that time. Many traders, especially those of the Bugis people, came to Kendari due to the ongoing Dutch–Bone War between 1824 and 1825. During this time, Konawe was in a weakened state following a succession of crises. In 1858, La Mangu, a noble from Ranome Eto, signed a treaty with the Dutch, as he wished to create a separate kingdom, Laiwoi, independent from Konawe. Laiwoi would be located in Ranome Eto, and its founding was kept secret from Konawe royal council members. Laiwoi existed legally, but did not control any territory, as Konawe maintained its hold on the area. The Dutch promised armed help to create the kingdom on the condition that the treaty would be kept secret from the people of Konawe until the other Dutch wars in South Sulawesi ended.^{[9]: 39–41}

In 1905, following the end of the war against the Gowa Sultanate, the Dutch turned their attention to the eastern coast of Sulawesi. La Mangu had died by now, but the Dutch maintained the plans to establish Laiwoi, approaching nobles from Ranome Eto with the treaty and finally, naming Saosao as king, increasing tensions with the Konawe nobility. To avoid armed conflict, the Dutch government mediated an agreement. However, Konawe secretly mobilised its troops and established an arms store in Puwilalo. In response, the Dutch attempted, and failed, to negotiate with their leader, Watukila. Finally, the Dutch decided to attack Watukila's troops and invaded the kingdom. In 1908, Dutch troops besieged Puundombi Fort, and Konawe fell.^{[9]: 44–49} Laiwoi moved the capital to Kendari; armed resistance to it and the Dutch continued through 1937.^[9]: 59

Japanese occupation and independence

Japanese troops occupied the city after the Battle of Kendari in 1942. The Dutch garrison initially opted for guerilla warfare, but following increased Indonesian nationalist sentiment, and the lack of resistance that followed, the Dutch command ultimately pressed for surrender, which they did on 27 March. As in other regions, Japanese troops provided opportunities for Indonesian nationalism to spread in the region, and gave nationalist groups military training.^[9]:60

One month after the Proclamation of Indonesian Independence in August 1945, youth in the region created a militia headquartered in Kolaka. The PRI (Indonesian Republican Youth) controlled the militia and spread its influence to cities and towns in Southeast Sulawesi, including Kendari. Lasandara, a local administrator for the Dutch, officially supported independence. However, in October, Australian troops entered the region with the Netherlands Indies Civil Administration. On 19 November, a Republican militia clashed with Dutch troops in an event known as the Kolaka incident. In February 1946, Dutch troops occupied the large cities in the region; guerilla resistance by the Republicans continued until 1948.^{[9]: 61–64} The city and the surrounding region became part of the State of East Indonesia, which was incorporated into the newly recognised Indonesian Republic a year later. The city was heavily affected by the Darul Islam rebellion, which started in South Sulawesi but spread to the eastern coast. Because of the conflict, there were several refugee camps around the city. In 1964, the new province of Southeast Sulawesi was created with Kendari as its capital city.^[10] In 1978, Kendari gained city status as an administrative city and in 1995 as a kotamadya.^[5]

Due to its status as provincial capital, Kendari has been experiencing significant urbanization, making it prone to flooding and other disasters.^[11][12][13]

Climate

Kendari has a tropical rainforest climate (Köppen Af) with heavy rainfall from December to July and moderate rainfall from August to November. The city's average temperature is 31 °C (88 °F).^[14]

The lowest average temperature is usually recorded in August and can be 21 °C (70 °F), while the highest average temperature is observed during November reaching 32 °C (90 °F). The average humidity level is between 81 and 87 percent regardless of the month, and wind speed on average sits between 6.8 knots (12.6 km/h; 7.8 mph) and 7.5 knots (13.9 km/h; 8.6 mph) with stronger winds observed in December.^[14]

Administrative districts

At the time of the 2010 census, the city was divided into ten districts (kecamatan), but an 11th district (Nambo) was subsequently created from part of Abeli District. All districts are tabulated below with their postcodes, areas and populations at the 2010 census^[2] and the 2020 census,^[3] together with the official estimates as at mid 2022.^[1] The table also includes the locations of the district administrative centres, the number of urban villages (kelurahan) in each district, and its post codes.

Note: (a) The 2010 population of the new Nambo District, and its post codes, are included in the figures for Abeli District, from which it was later cut out.

Government and politics

As with all Indonesian cities, Kendari is a second-level administrative division, equal in power to a regency, that is run by an elected mayor and vice mayor, who hold executive power, as well as a legislative city parliament.^[16] Legislative duties are vested in the local parliament.^[17] Heads of districts are appointed by the mayor on the recommendation of the city secretary.^[18][19]

The city is part of the 1st Southeast Sulawesi electoral district, which sends six of the 45 representatives to the provincial parliament. On the city level, it is divided into five electoral districts, which has 35 representatives.^[20]