Chinese People's Liberation Army
中国人民解放军
Zhōngguó Rénmín Jiěfàngjūn
Emblem of the People's Liberation Army
Flag of the People's Liberation Army
The characters are "八一", referencing August 1.
Motto为人民服务
("Serve the People")
Founded1 August 1927 (1927-08-01)
Current form10 October 1947 (1947-10-10)[1][2][3]
Service branches
HeadquartersAugust First Building (ceremonial), etc., Fuxing Road, Haidian District, Beijing
Websiteeng.chinamil.com.cn
Leadership
Governing body Central Military Commission (CMC)
CMC leadershipChairman:
Xi Jinping
Vice Chairmen:

General Zhang Youxia

General He Weidong
Minister of National Defense Admiral Dong Jun
Director of the Political Work Department Admiral Miao Hua
Chief of the Joint Staff Department General Liu Zhenli
Secretary of Discipline Inspection Commission General Zhang Shengmin
Personnel
Military age18
ConscriptionYes by law, but not enforced in practice. All adult males must register for the draft.[4]
Active personnel2,035,000 (2022)[5] (ranked 1st)
Reserve personnel510,000 (2022)[5]
Expenditures
BudgetUS$293 billion (2022)[6]
(ranked 2nd)
Percent of GDP1.7% (2022)[6]
Industry
Domestic suppliers
Foreign suppliers Historical:
Annual importsUS$14.858 billion (2010–2021)[8]
Annual exportsUS$18.121 billion (2010–2021)[8]
Related articles
HistoryHistory of the PLA
Modernization of the PLA
Historical Chinese wars and battles
Military engagements
RanksArmy ranks
Navy ranks
Air force ranks
Chinese People's Liberation Army
Simplified Chinese中国人民解放军
Traditional Chinese中國人民解放軍
Literal meaning"China People Liberation Army"

The People's Liberation Army (PLA) is the armed wing of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) and the principal military force of the People's Republic of China. The PLA consists of five service branches: the Ground Force, Navy, Air Force, Rocket Force, and Strategic Support Force. It is under the leadership of the Central Military Commission (CMC) with its chairman as commander-in-chief.

The PLA can trace its origins during the Republican Era to the left-wing units of the National Revolutionary Army (NRA) of the Kuomintang (KMT) when they broke away in 1927 in an uprising against the nationalist government as the Chinese Red Army, before being reintegrated into the NRA as units of New Fourth Army and Eighth Route Army during the Second Sino-Japanese War. The two NRA communist units were reconstituted as the PLA in 1947.[9] Since 1949, the PLA has used nine different military strategies, which it calls "strategic guidelines". The most important came in 1956, 1980, and 1993.[10] In times of national emergency, the People's Armed Police (PAP) and the China Militia act as a reserve and support element for the Ground Force. Politically, the PLA and PAP are represented in the National People's Congress (NPC) through a delegation of 285 deputies, all of whom are CCP members. Since the formation of the NPC, the joint PLA–PAP delegation has always constituted the largest delegation and today comprises just over 9% of the NPC.[11]

PRC law explicitly asserts the leadership of the CCP over the armed forces of China and designates the CMC as the nationwide military command of the People's Republic of China. The Party CMC operates under the name of the State CMC for legal and governmental functions, and the ceremonial Ministry of National Defense is limited to diplomatic functions. The PLA is obliged to follow the principle of the CCP's absolute civilian control of the military under the doctrine of "the party commands the gun" (Chinese: 党指挥枪; pinyin: Dǎng zhǐhuī qiāng) In this sense, the PLA is not a national army of the type of traditional nation-states, but a political army or the armed branch of the CCP itself since its allegiance is to the party only and not the state or any constitution. At present, the CMC chairman is customarily also the CCP general secretary.

Today, the majority of military units around the country are assigned to one of five theater commands by geographical location. The PLA is the world's largest military force (not including paramilitary or reserve forces) and has the second largest defense budget in the world. China's military expenditure was US$292 billion in 2022, accounting for 13 percent of the world's defense expenditures. It is also one of the fastest modernizing militaries in the world, and has been termed as a potential military superpower, with significant regional defense and rising global power projection capabilities.[12][13]

Stated mission

In 2004, paramount leader Hu Jintao stated the mission of the PLA as:[14]

  • The insurance of CCP leadership
  • The protection of the sovereignty, territorial integrity, internal security and national development of the People's Republic of China
  • Safeguarding the country's interests
  • Maintaining and safeguarding world peace

History

Early history

The CCP founded its military wing on 1 August 1927 during the Nanchang uprising, beginning the Chinese Civil War. Communist elements of the National Revolutionary Army rebelled under the leadership of Zhu De, He Long, Ye Jianying, Zhou Enlai, and other leftist elements of the Kuomintang (KMT), after the Shanghai massacre in 1927.[15] They were then known as the Chinese Workers' and Peasants' Red Army, or simply the Red Army.[16]

In 1934 and 1935, the Red Army survived several campaigns led against it by Chiang Kai-Shek's KMT and engaged in the Long March.[17]

During the Second Sino-Japanese War from 1937 to 1945, the CCP's military forces were nominally integrated into the National Revolutionary Army of the Republic of China forming two main units, the Eighth Route Army and the New Fourth Army.[9] During this time, these two military groups primarily employed guerrilla tactics, generally avoiding large-scale battles with the Japanese, at the same time consolidating by recruiting KMT troops and paramilitary forces behind Japanese lines into their forces.[18]

After the Japanese surrender in 1945, the CCP continued to use the National Revolutionary Army unit structures until the decision was made in February 1947 to merge the Eighth Route Army and New Fourth Army, renaming the new million-strong force the People's Liberation Army (PLA).[9] The reorganization was completed by late 1948. The PLA eventually won the Chinese Civil War, establishing the People's Republic of China in 1949.[19] It then underwent a drastic reorganization, with the establishment of the Air Force leadership structure in November 1949, followed by the Navy leadership structure the following April.[20][21]

In 1950, the leadership structures of the artillery, armored troops, air defense troops, public security forces, and worker–soldier militias were also established. The chemical warfare defense forces, the railroad forces, the communications forces, and the strategic forces, as well as other separate forces (like engineering and construction, logistics and medical services), were established later on.

In this early period, the People's Liberation Army overwhelmingly consisted of peasants.[22] Its treatment of soldiers and officers was egalitarian[22] and formal ranks were not adopted until 1955.[23] As a result of its egalitarian organization, the early PLA overturned strict traditional hierarchies that governed the lives of peasants.[22] As sociologist Alessandro Russo summarizes, the peasant composition of the PLA hierarchy was a radical break with Chinese societal norms and "overturned the strict traditional hierarchies in unprecedented forms of egalitarianism[.]"[22]

Modernization and conflicts

PLA troops entering Beijing in 1949 during the Chinese Civil War
Chinese troops gathered on a T-34/85 or a Type 58 medium tank leaving North Korea in 1958, 5 years after the Korean War ended with an armistice (a ceasefire) in 1953. The banner in the background of the picture bears a slogan (in Chinese) which declares "The Friendship And Unity of the North Korean And Chinese Peoples Are Always Steadfast And Strong!"
Marshal Lin Biao surveying the soldiers during the 10th-anniversary military parade in 1959.

During the 1950s, the PLA with Soviet assistance began to transform itself from a peasant army into a modern one.[24] Since 1949, China has used nine different military strategies, which the PLA calls "strategic guidelines". The most important came in 1956, 1980, and 1993.[10] Part of this process was the reorganization that created thirteen military regions in 1955. The PLA also contained many former National Revolutionary Army units and generals who had defected to the PLA.

In November 1950, some units of the PLA under the name of the People's Volunteer Army intervened in the Korean War as United Nations forces under General Douglas MacArthur approached the Yalu River.[25] Under the weight of this offensive, Chinese forces drove MacArthur's forces out of North Korea and captured Seoul, but were subsequently pushed back south of Pyongyang north of the 38th Parallel.[25] The war also catalyzed the rapid modernization of the PLAAF.[26]

In 1962, the PLA ground force also fought India in the Sino-Indian War.[27][28] In a series of border clashes in 1967 with Indian troops, the PLA suffered heavy numerical and tactical losses.[29][30][31]

Before the Cultural Revolution, military region commanders tended to remain in their posts for long periods. As the PLA took a stronger role in politics, this began to be seen as somewhat of a threat to the CCP's (or, at least, civilian) control of the military. The longest-serving military region commanders were Xu Shiyou in the Nanjing Military Region (1954–74), Yang Dezhi in the Jinan Military Region (1958–74), Chen Xilian in the Shenyang Military Region (1959–73), and Han Xianchu in the Fuzhou Military Region (1960–74).[32]

In the early days of the Cultural Revolution, the PLA abandoned the use of the military ranks that it had adopted in 1955.[33]

The establishment of a professional military force equipped with modern weapons and doctrine was the last of the Four Modernizations announced by Zhou Enlai and supported by Deng Xiaoping.[34][35] In keeping with Deng's mandate to reform, the PLA has demobilized millions of men and women since 1978 and has introduced modern methods in such areas as recruitment and manpower, strategy, and education and training.[36] In 1979, the PLA fought Vietnam over a border skirmish in the Sino-Vietnamese War where both sides claimed victory.[37] However, western analysts agree that Vietnam handily outperformed the PLA.[32]

During the Sino-Soviet split, strained relations between China and the Soviet Union resulted in bloody border clashes and mutual backing of each other's adversaries.[38] China and Afghanistan had neutral relations with each other during the King's rule.[39] When the pro-Soviet Afghan Communists seized power in Afghanistan in 1978, relations between China and the Afghan communists quickly turned hostile.[40] The Afghan pro-Soviet communists supported China's enemies in Vietnam and blamed China for supporting Afghan anticommunist militants.[41] China responded to the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan by supporting the Afghan mujahidin and ramping up their military presence near Afghanistan in Xinjiang.[41] China acquired military equipment from the United States to defend itself from Soviet attacks.[42]

The PLA Ground Force trained and supported the Afghan Mujahideen during the Soviet-Afghan War, moving its training camps for the mujahideen from Pakistan into China itself.[43] Hundreds of millions of dollars worth of anti-aircraft missiles, rocket launchers, and machine guns were given to the Mujahideen by the Chinese.[44] Chinese military advisors and army troops were also present with the Mujahideen during training.[45]

Since 1980

In 1981, the PLA conducted its largest military exercise in North China since the founding of the People's Republic.[10][46] In the 1980s, China shrunk its military considerably to free up resources for economic development, resulting in the relative decline in resources devoted to the PLA.[47] Following the PLA's suppression of the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre, ideological correctness was temporarily revived as the dominant theme in Chinese military affairs.[48]

Reform and modernization have today resumed their position as the PLA's primary objectives, although the armed forces' political loyalty to the CCP has remained a leading concern.[49][50] Another area of concern to the political leadership was the PLA's involvement in civilian economic activities. These activities were thought to have impacted PLA readiness and have led the political leadership to attempt to divest the PLA from its non-military business interests.[51][52]

Beginning in the 1980s, the PLA tried to transform itself from a land-based power centered on a vast ground force to a smaller, more mobile, high-tech one capable of mounting operations beyond its borders.[10] The motivation for this was that a massive land invasion by Russia was no longer seen as a major threat, and the new threats to China are seen to be a declaration of independence by Taiwan, possibly with assistance from the United States, or a confrontation over the Spratly Islands.[53]

In 1985, under the leadership of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party and the CMC, the PLA changed from being constantly prepared to "hit early, strike hard and to fight a nuclear war" to developing the military in an era of peace.[10] The PLA reoriented itself to modernization, improving its fighting ability, and becoming a world-class force. Deng Xiaoping stressed that the PLA needed to focus more on quality rather than on quantity.[53]

The decision of the Chinese government in 1985 to reduce the size of the military by one million was completed by 1987. Staffing in military leadership was cut by about 50 percent. During the Ninth Five Year Plan (1996–2000) the PLA was reduced by a further 500,000. The PLA had also been expected to be reduced by another 200,000 by 2005. The PLA has focused on increasing mechanization and informatization to be able to fight a high-intensity war.[53]

The PLA Honor Guard in Beijing, 2007

Former CMC chairman Jiang Zemin in 1990 called on the military to "meet political standards, be militarily competent, have a good working style, adhere strictly to discipline, and provide vigorous logistic support" (Chinese: 政治合格、军事过硬、作风优良、纪律严明、保障有力; pinyin: zhèngzhì hégé, jūnshì guòyìng, zuòfēng yōuliáng, jìlǜ yánmíng, bǎozhàng yǒulì).[54] The 1991 Gulf War provided the Chinese leadership with a stark realization that the PLA was an oversized, almost-obsolete force.[55][56]

The possibility of a militarized Japan has also been a continuous concern to the Chinese leadership since the late 1990s.[57] In addition, China's military leadership has been reacting to and learning from the successes and failures of the United States Armed Forces during the Kosovo War,[58] the 2001 invasion of Afghanistan,[59] the 2003 invasion of Iraq,[60] and the Iraqi insurgency.[60] All these lessons inspired China to transform the PLA from a military based on quantity to one based on quality. Chairman Jiang Zemin officially made a "revolution in military affairs" (RMA) part of the official national military strategy in 1993 to modernize the Chinese armed forces.[61]

A goal of the RMA is to transform the PLA into a force capable of winning what it calls "local wars under high-tech conditions" rather than a massive, numbers-dominated ground-type war.[61] Chinese military planners call for short decisive campaigns, limited in both their geographic scope and their political goals. In contrast to the past, more attention is given to reconnaissance, mobility, and deep reach. This new vision has shifted resources towards the navy and air force. The PLA is also actively preparing for space warfare and cyber-warfare.[62][63][64]

In 2002, the PLA began holding military exercises with militaries from other countries.[65]:242 From 2018 to 2023, more than half of these exercises have focused on military training other than war, generally antipiracy or antiterrorism exercises involving combatting non-state actors.[65]:242 In 2009, the PLA held its first military exercise in Africa, a humanitarian and medical training practice conducted in Gabon.[65]:242

For the past 10 to 20 years, the PLA has acquired some advanced weapons systems from Russia, including Sovremenny class destroyers,[66] Sukhoi Su-27[67] and Sukhoi Su-30 aircraft,[68] and Kilo-class diesel-electric submarines.[69] It has also started to produce several new classes of destroyers and frigates including the Type 052D class guided-missile destroyer.[70][71] In addition, the PLAAF has designed its very own Chengdu J-10 fighter aircraft[72] and a new stealth fighter, the Chengdu J-20.[73] The PLA launched the new Jin class nuclear submarines on 3 December 2004 capable of launching nuclear warheads that could strike targets across the Pacific Ocean[74] and have three aircraft carriers, with the latest, the Fujian, launched in 2022.[75][76][77]

From 2014 to 2015, the PLA deployed 524 medical staff on a rotational basis to combat the Ebola virus outbreak in Liberia, Sierra Leone, Guinea, and Guinea-Bissau.[65]:245 As of 2023, this was the PLA's largest medical assistance mission in another country.[65]:245

In 2015, the PLA formed new units including the PLA Ground Force, the PLA Rocket Force and the PLA Strategic Support Force.[78]

The PLA on 1 August 2017 marked its 90th anniversary.[79] Before the big anniversary it mounted its biggest parade yet and the first outside of Beijing, held in the Zhurihe Training Base in the Northern Theater Command (within the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region).[80]

In December 2023 Reuters reported a military leadership purge after high ranking generals were ousted from the Chinese legislature.[81] In preceding years, sixty generals have been investigated and sacked.[82]

Overseas deployments and peacekeeping operations

The People's Republic of China has sent the PLA to various hotspots as part of China's role as a prominent member of the United Nations.[83] Such units usually include engineers and logistical units and members of the paramilitary People's Armed Police and have been deployed as part of peacekeeping operations in Lebanon,[84][85] the Republic of the Congo,[84] Sudan,[86] Ivory Coast,[87] Haiti,[88][89] and more recently, Mali and South Sudan.[84][90]

Engagements

Organization

The CMC is ceremonially housed in the Ministry of National Defense compound ("August 1st Building")

The PLA is a component of the Armed Forces of the People's Republic of China, along with two paramilitary organizations: the People's Armed Police and the Militia.[115] Under the doctrine of "the party commands the gun" (Chinese: 党指挥枪; pinyin: Dǎng zhǐhuī qiāng), the PLA is under the absolute control of the CCP.[10]

Central Military Commission

The PLA is governed by the Central Military Commission (CMC); under the arrangement of "one institution with two names", there exists a state CMC and a Party CMC, although both commissions have identical personnel, organization and function, and effectively work as a single body.[116] The only difference in membership between the two occurs for a few months every five years, during the period between a Party National Congress, when Party CMC membership changes, and the next ensuing National People's Congress, when the state CMC changes.[117]

The CMC is composed of a chairman, vice chairpersons and regular members. The chairman of the CMC is the commander-in-chief of the PLA, with the post generally held by the paramount leader of China; since 1989, the post has generally been held together with the CCP general secretary.[116][118] Unlike in other countries, the Ministry of National Defense and its Minister do not have command authority, largely acting as diplomatic liaisons of the CMC, though the Minister has always been a member of the CMC.[116]

The Membership of the Central Military Commission
Chairman
Vice Chairmen
Members

Previously, the PLA was governed by four general departments; the General Political, the General Logistics, the General Armament, and the General Staff Departments. These were abolished in 2016 under the military reforms undertaken by Xi Jinping, replaced with 15 new functional departments directly reporting to the CMC:[119]

  1. General Office
  2. Joint Staff Department
  3. Political Work Department
  4. Logistic Support Department
  5. Equipment Development Department
  6. Training and Administration Department
  7. National Defense Mobilization Department
  8. Discipline Inspection Commission
  9. Politics and Legal Affairs Commission
  10. Science and Technology Commission
  11. Office for Strategic Planning
  12. Office for Reform and Organizational Structure
  13. Office for International Military Cooperation
  14. Audit Office
  15. Agency for Offices Administration

Included among the 15 departments are three commissions. The CMC Discipline Inspection Commission is charged with rooting out corruption.

Political leadership

The CCP maintains absolute control over the PLA. It requires the PLA to undergo political education, instilling CCP ideology to its members.[120] Additionally, China maintains a political commissar system.[121] Regiment-level and higher units maintain CCP committees and political commissars (Chinese: 政治委员 or 政委).[121][122] Additionally, battalion-level and company-level units respectively maintain political directors and political instructors.[123] The political workers are officially equal to commanders in status.[120] The political workers are officially responsible for the implementation of party committee decisions, instilling and maintaining party discipline, providing political education, and working with other components of the political work system.[123]

As a rule, the political worker serves as the party committee secretary while the commander serves as the deputy secretary.[123] Key decisions in the PLA are generally made in the CCP committees throughout the military.[120] Due to the CCP's absolute leadership, non-CCP political parties, groups and organizations except the Communist Youth League of China are not allowed to establish organizations or have members in the PLA. Additionally, only the CCP is allowed to appoint the leading cadres at all levels of the PLA.[122]

Theater commands

The five theater commands of the PLA[124]

Until 2016, China's territory was divided into seven military regions, but they were reorganized into five theater commands in early 2016.[119] This reflected a change in their concept of operations from primarily ground-oriented to mobile and coordinated movement of all services.[125] The five theatre commands, in order of stated significance are:[126]

The military reforms have also introduced a major change in the areas of responsibility. Rather than separately commanding their troops, service branches are now primarily responsible for administrative tasks (like equipping and maintaining the troops). It is the theater commands now that have the command authority. This should, in theory, facilitate the implementation of joint operations across all service branches.[127]

Organization table

Central Military Commission
DepartmentsCommissionsOfficesForces Directly under the CMCResearch institutes
General OfficeDiscipline Inspection CommissionOffice for Strategic PlanningJoint Logistic Support Force[128]Academy of Military Science
Joint Staff DepartmentPolitics and Legal Affairs CommissionOffice for Reform and Organizational StructureNational Defence University
Political Work DepartmentScience and Technology CommissionOffice for International Military CooperationNational University of Defense Technology
Logistic Support DepartmentAudit Office
Equipment Development DepartmentAgency for Offices Administration
Training and Administration Department
National Defense Mobilization Department
Theater commandsService Branches
Eastern Theater CommandPLA Ground Force
Western Theater CommandPLA Navy
Southern Theater CommandPLA Air Force
Northern Theater CommandPLA Rocket Force
Central Theater CommandPLA Strategic Support Force
People's Liberation Army

Ranks

Officers

Rank group General / flag officers Senior officers Junior officers Officer cadet
 PLA Ground Force[129]
General Lieutenant General Major General Colonel Commandant Colonel Lieutenant Colonel Major Captain First Lieutenant Second Lieutenant Officer Cadet
上将
Shàngjiàng
中将
Zhōngjiàng
少将
Shàojiàng
大校
Dàxiào
上校
Shàngxiào
中校
Zhōngxiào
少校
Shàoxiào
上尉
Shàngwèi
中尉
Zhōngwèi
少尉
Shàowèi
学员
Xuéyuán
 PLA Navy[129]
海军上将
Hǎijūn shàngjiàng
海军中将
Hǎijūn zhōngjiàng
海军少将
Hǎijūn shàojiàng
海军大校
Hǎijūn dàxiào
海军上校
Hǎijūn shàngxiào
海军中校
Hǎijūn zhōngxiào
海军少校
Hǎijūn shàoxiào
海军上尉
Hǎijūn shàngwèi
海军中尉
Hǎijūn zhōngwèi
海军少尉
Hǎijūn shàowèi
海军学员
Hǎijūn xuéyuán
 PLA Air Force[129]
General Lieutenant General Major General Brigadier Colonel Lieutenant Colonel Major Captain First Lieutenant Second Lieutenant Officer Cadet
空军上将
Kōngjūn shàngjiàng
空军中将
Kōngjūn zhōngjiàng
空军少将
Kōngjūn shàojiàng
空军大校
Kōngjūn dàxiào
空军上校
Kōngjūn shàngxiào
空军中校
Kōngjūn zhōngxiào
空军少校
Kōngjūn shàoxiào
空军上尉
Kōngjūn shàngwèi
空军中尉
Kōngjūn zhōngwèi
空军少尉
Kōngjūn shàowèi
空军学员
Kōngjūn xuéyuán
PLA Rocket Force
General
General
Lieutenant General
Lieutenant General
Major General
Major General
Colonel Commandant
Colonel Commandant
Colonel
Colonel
Lieutenant Colonel
Lieutenant Colonel
Major
Major
Captain
Captain
First Lieutenant
First Lieutenant
Second Lieutenant
Second Lieutenant
Officer Cadet
Officer Cadet
上将
Shàngjiàng
中将
Zhōngjiàng
少将
Shàojiàng
大校
Dàxiào
上校
Shàngxiào
中校
Zhōngxiào
少校
Shàoxiào
上尉
Shàngwèi
中尉
Zhōngwèi
少尉
Shàowèi
学员
Xuéyuán
China PLA Strategic Support Force
上将
Shàngjiàng
中将
Zhōngjiàng
少将
Shàojiàng
大校
Dàxiào
上校
Shàngxiào
中校
Zhōngxiào
少校
Shàoxiào
上尉
Shàngwèi
中尉
Zhōngwèi
少尉
Shàowèi
学员
Xuéyuán

Other ranks

Rank group Senior NCOs Junior NCOs Enlisted
 PLA Ground Force[129]
一级军士长
Yījí jūnshìzhǎng
二级军士长
Èrjí jūnshìzhǎng
三级军士长
Sānjí jūnshìzhǎng
四级军士长
Sìjí jūnshìzhǎng
上士
Shàngshì
中士
Zhōngshì
下士
Xiàshì
上等兵
Shàngděngbīng
列兵
Lièbīng
 PLA Navy[129]
海军一级军士长
Hǎijūn yījí jūnshìzhǎng
海军二级军士长
Hǎijūn èrjí jūnshìzhǎng
海军三级军士长
Hǎijūn sānjí jūnshìzhǎng
海军四级军士长
Hǎijūn sìjí jūnshìzhǎng
海军上士
Hǎijūn shàngshì
海军中士
Hǎijūn zhōngshì
海军下士
Hǎijūn xiàshì
海军上等兵
Hǎijūn shàngděngbīng
海军列兵
Hǎijūn lièbīng
 PLA Air Force[129]
空军一级军士长
Kōngjūn yījí jūnshìzhǎng
空军二级军士长
Kōngjūn èrjí jūnshìzhǎng
空军三级军士长
Kōngjūn sānjí jūnshìzhǎng
空军四级军士长
Kōngjūn sìjí jūnshìzhǎng
空军上士
Kōngjūn shàngshì
空军中士
Kōngjūn zhōngshì
空军下士
Kōngjūn xiàshì
空军上等兵
Kōngjūn shàngděngbīng
空军列兵
Kōngjūn lièbīng
PLA Rocket Force
No equivalent
Master sergeant class one
一级军士长
yījí jūnshìzhǎng
Master sergeant class two
二级军士长
èrjí jūnshìzhǎng
Master sergeant class three
三级军士长
sānjí jūnshìzhǎng
Master sergeant class four
四级军士长
sìjí jūnshìzhǎng
Sergeant first class
上士
shàngshì
Sergeant
中士
zhōngshì
Corporal
下士
xiàshì
Private first class
上等兵
shàngděngbīng
Private
列兵
lièbīng
PLA Strategic Support Force
一级军士长
Yījí jūnshìzhǎng
二级军士长
Èrjí jūnshìzhǎng
三级军士长
Sānjí jūnshìzhǎng
四级军士长
Sìjí jūnshìzhǎng
上士
Shàngshì
中士
Zhōngshì
下士
Xiàshì
上等兵
Shàngděngbīng
列兵
Lièbīng

Service branches

The PLA encompasses five main service branches (Chinese: 军种; pinyin: jūnzhǒng): the Ground Force, the Navy, the Air Force, the Rocket Force, and the Strategic Support Force. Following the 200,000 and 300,000 personnel reduction announced in 2003 and 2005 respectively, the total strength of the PLA has been reduced from 2.5 million to around 2 million.[130] The reductions came mainly from non-combat ground forces, which would allow more funds to be diverted to naval, air, and strategic missile forces. This shows China's shift from ground force prioritisation to emphasising air and naval power with high-tech equipment for offensive roles over disputed coastal territories.[131]

Ground Force (PLAGF)

A Type 99A main battle tank in service with the PLAGF

The PLA Ground Force (PLAGF) is the largest of the PLA's five services with 975,000 active duty personnel, approximately half of the PLA's total manpower of around 2 million personnel.[132] The PLAGF is organized into twelve active duty group armies sequentially numbered from the 71st Group Army to the 83rd Group Army which are distributed to each of the PRC's five theatre commands, receiving two to three group armies per command. In wartime, numerous PLAGF reserve and paramilitary units may be mobilized to augment these active group armies. The PLAGF reserve component comprises approximately 510,000 personnel divided into thirty infantry and twelve anti-aircraft artillery (AAA) divisions. The PLAGF is led by Commander Liu Zhenli and Political Commissar Qin Shutong.[133][134]

A PLAN destroyer conducting maritime interdiction operations at RIMPAC 2016

Until the early 1990s, the PLA Navy (PLAN) performed a subordinate role to the PLA Ground Force (PLAGF). Since then it has undergone rapid modernisation. The 300,000 strong PLAN is organised into three major fleets: the North Sea Fleet headquartered at Qingdao, the East Sea Fleet headquartered at Ningbo, and the South Sea Fleet headquartered in Zhanjiang.[135] Each fleet consists of a number of surface ship, submarine, naval air force, coastal defence, and marine units.[136][137]

The navy includes a 25,000 strong Marine Corps (organised into seven brigades), a 26,000 strong Naval Aviation Force operating several hundred attack helicopters and fixed-wing aircraft.[138] As part of its overall programme of naval modernisation, the PLAN is in the stage of developing a blue water navy.[139] In November 2012, then Party General Secretary Hu Jintao reported to the CCP's 18th National Congress his desire to "enhance our capacity for exploiting marine resource and build China into a strong maritime power".[140] According to the United States Department of Defense, the PLAN has numerically the largest navy in the world.[141] The PLAN is led by Commander Dong Jun and Political Commissar Yuan Huazhi.[142]

Air Force (PLAAF)

A Chengdu J-20 5th generation stealth fighter

The 395,000 strong People's Liberation Army Air Force (PLAAF) is organized into five Theater Command Air Forces (TCAF) and 24 air divisions.[143] The largest operational units within the Aviation Corps is the air division, which has 2 to 3 aviation regiments, each with 20 to 36 aircraft. The surface-to-air missile (SAM) Corps is organized into SAM divisions and brigades. There are also three airborne divisions manned by the PLAAF. J-XX and XXJ are names applied by Western intelligence agencies to describe programs by the People's Republic of China to develop one or more fifth-generation fighter aircraft.[144][145] The PLAAF is led by Commander Chang Dingqiu and Political Commissar Guo Puxiao.[146][147]

Rocket Force (PLARF)

DF-21Ds at the 2015 Victory Parade

The People's Liberation Army Rocket Force (PLARF) is the main strategic missile force of the PLA and consists of at least 120,000 personnel.[148] It controls China's nuclear and conventional strategic missiles.[149] China's total nuclear arsenal size is estimated to be between 100 and 400 thermonuclear warheads. The PLARF is organized into bases sequentially numbered from 61 through 67, wherein the first six are operational and allocated to the nation's theater commands while Base 67 serves as the PRC's central nuclear weapons storage facility.[150] The PLARF is led by Command Li Yuchao and Political Commissar Xu Zhongbo.[151][152]

Strategic Support Force (PLASSF)

A space launch from the Wenchang Space Launch Site

Founded on 31 December 2015 as part of the first wave of reforms of the PLA, the People's Liberation Army Strategic Support Force (PLASSF) was established as the newest and latest branch of the PLA. Personnel numbers are estimated at 175,000.[148] Initial announcements regarding the Strategic Support Force did not provide much detail, but Yang Yujun of the Chinese Ministry of Defense described it as an integration of all current combat support forces including but limited to space, cyber, electronic and intelligence branches. Additionally, commentators have speculated that the new service branch will include high-tech operations forces such as space, cyberspace and electronic warfare operations units, independent of other branches of the military.[153]

Yin Zhuo, rear admiral of the People's Liberation Army Navy and member of the eleventh Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) said that "the major mission of the PLA Strategic Support Force is the provision of support to the combat operations so that the PLA can gain regional advantages in the aerospace, space, network and electromagnetic space warfare and ensure integrated operations in the conduction of US joint warfare style operations."[154]

Special forces

A PLA Navy Special Operations Forces marine during a maritime operations exercise in RIMPAC 2014.

The People's Liberation Army Special Operations Forces (中国人民解放军特种部队) are a special operations force of the People's Liberation Army.

The forces intended combat role is to be rapid-response units in the event of a limited regional war under high-tech conditions. They also carry out commando, counter-terrorism, and intelligence gathering operations.

Conscription and terms of service

Technically, military service with the PLA is obligatory for all Chinese citizens. In practice, mandatory military service has not been implemented since 1949 as the People's Liberation Army has been able to recruit sufficient numbers voluntarily.[155]

Article 55 of the Constitution of the People's Republic of China prescribes conscription by stating: "It is a sacred duty of every citizen of the People's Republic of China to defend his or her motherland and resist invasion. It is an honoured obligation of the citizens of the People's Republic of China to perform military service and to join the militia forces."[156] The 1984 Military Service Law spells out the legal basis of conscription, describing military service as a duty for "all citizens without distinction of race … and religious creed". This law has not been amended since it came into effect. Technically, those 18–22 years of age enter selective compulsory military service, with a 24-month service obligation. In reality, numbers of registering personals are enough to support all military posts in China, creating "volunteer conscription".[157]

Residents of the special administrative regions, Hong Kong and Macau, are exempted from joining the military.

Weapons and equipment

According to the United States Department of Defense, China is developing kinetic-energy weapons, high-powered lasers, high-powered microwave weapons, particle-beam weapons, and electromagnetic pulse weapons with its increase of military fundings.[158]

The PLA has said of reports that its modernisation is dependent on sales of advanced technology from American allies, senior leadership have stated "Some have politicized China's normal commercial cooperation with foreign countries, damaging our reputation." These contributions include advanced European diesel engines for Chinese warships, military helicopter designs from Eurocopter, French anti-submarine sonars and helicopters,[159] Australian technology for the Houbei class missile boat,[160] and Israeli supplied American missile, laser and aircraft technology.[161]

According to the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute's data, China became the world's third largest exporter of major arms in 2010–14, an increase of 143 percent from the period 2005–2009.[162] SIPRI also calculated that China surpassed Russia to become the world's second largest arms exporter by 2020.[163]

China's share of global arms exports hence increased from 3 to 5 percent. China supplied major arms to 35 states in 2010–14. A significant percentage (just over 68 percent) of Chinese exports went to three countries: Pakistan, Bangladesh and Myanmar. China also exported major arms to 18 African states. Examples of China's increasing global presence as an arms supplier in 2010–14 included deals with Venezuela for armoured vehicles and transport and trainer aircraft, with Algeria for three frigates, with Indonesia for the supply of hundreds of anti-ship missiles and with Nigeria for the supply of several unmanned combat aerial vehicles.[164]

Following rapid advances in its arms industry, China has become less dependent on arms imports, which decreased by 42 percent between 2005–09 and 2010–14. Russia accounted for 61 percent of Chinese arms imports, followed by France with 16 percent and Ukraine with 13 per cent. Helicopters formed a major part of Russian and French deliveries, with the French designs produced under licence in China.[164]

Over the years, China has struggled to design and produce effective engines for combat and transport vehicles. It continued to import large numbers of engines from Russia and Ukraine in 2010–14 for indigenously designed combat, advanced trainer and transport aircraft, and naval ships. It also produced British-, French- and German-designed engines for combat aircraft, naval ships and armoured vehicles, mostly as part of agreements that have been in place for decades.[164]

In August 2021, China tested a nuclear-capable hypersonic missile that circled the globe before speeding towards its target.[165] The Financial Times reported that "the test showed that China had made astounding progress on hypersonic weapons and was far more advanced than U.S. officials realized."[166] During the Exercise Zapad-81 in 2021 with Russian forces, most of the gear were novel Chinese arms such as the KJ-500 airborne early warning and control aircraft, J-20 and J-16 fighters, Y-20 transport planes, and surveillance and combat drones.[167] Another joint forces exercise took place in August 2023 near Alaska.[168]

Cyberwarfare

There is a belief in the Western military doctrines that the PLA have already begun engaging countries using cyber-warfare.[169] There has been a significant increase in the number of presumed Chinese military initiated cyber events from 1999 to the present day.[170]

Cyberwarfare has gained recognition as a valuable technique because it is an asymmetric technique that is a part of information operations and information warfare. As is written by two PLAGF Colonels, Qiao Liang and Wang Xiangsui in the book Unrestricted Warfare, "Methods that are not characterized by the use of the force of arms, nor by the use of military power, nor even by the presence of casualties and bloodshed, are just as likely to facilitate the successful realization of the war's goals, if not more so.[171]

While China has long been suspected of cyber spying, on 24 May 2011 the PLA announced the existence of having 'cyber capabilities'.[172]

In February 2013, the media named "Comment Crew" as a hacker military faction for China's People's Liberation Army.[173] In May 2014, a Federal Grand Jury in the United States indicted five Unit 61398 officers on criminal charges related to cyber attacks on private companies based in the United States after alleged investigations by the Federal Bureau of Investigation who exposed their identities in collaboration with US intelligence agencies such as the CIA.[174][175]

In February 2020, the United States government indicted members of China's People's Liberation Army for the 2017 Equifax data breach, which involved hacking into Equifax and plundering sensitive data as part of a massive heist that also included stealing trade secrets, though the CCP denied these claims.[176][177]

Nuclear capabilities

The range of the PLA Rocket Force's medium and intercontinental ballistic missiles (2006)

In 1955, China decided to proceed with a nuclear weapons program. The decision was made after the United States threatened the use of nuclear weapons against China should it take action against Quemoy and Matsu, coupled with the lack of interest of the Soviet Union for using its nuclear weapons in defense of China.

After their first nuclear test (China claims minimal Soviet assistance before 1960) on 16 October 1964, China was the first state to pledge no-first-use of nuclear weapons. On 1 July 1966, the Second Artillery Corps, as named by Premier Zhou Enlai, was formed. In 1967, China tested a fully functional hydrogen bomb.

China became a major international arms exporter during the 1980s. Beijing joined the Middle East arms control talks, which began in July 1991 to establish global guidelines for conventional arms transfers, and later announced that it would no longer participate because of the US decision to sell 150 F-16A/B aircraft to Taiwan on 2 September 1992.

It joined the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) in 1984 and pledged to abstain from further atmospheric testing of nuclear weapons in 1986. China acceded to the nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) in 1992 and supported its indefinite and unconditional extension in 1995. Nuclear weapons tests by China ceased in 1996, when it signed the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty and agreed to seek an international ban on the production of fissile nuclear weapons material.

Beijing has deployed a modest ballistic missile force, including land and sea-based intermediate-range and intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs). It was estimated in 2007 that China has about 100–160 liquid-fuelled ICBMs capable of striking the United States with approximately 100–150 IRBMs able to strike Russia or Eastern Europe, as well as several hundred tactical SRBMs with ranges between 300 and 600 km.[178] Currently, the Chinese nuclear stockpile is estimated to be between 50 and 75 land and sea based ICBMs.[179]

China's nuclear program has historically followed a doctrine of minimal deterrence, which involves having the minimum force needed to deter an aggressor from launching a first strike. The current efforts of China appear to be aimed at maintaining a survivable nuclear force by, for example, using solid-fuelled ICBMs in silos rather than liquid-fuelled missiles. China's 2006 published deterrence policy states that they will "uphold the principles of counterattack in self-defense and limited development of nuclear weapons", but "has never entered, and will never enter into a nuclear arms race with any country". It goes on to describe that China will never undertake a first strike, or use nuclear weapons against a non-nuclear state or zone.[178]

In 2007, however, the United States' Department of Defense suggested that the Chinese position may be ambiguous, and nuclear weapons may be used both to deter conventional strikes/invasions on the Chinese mainland or as an international political tool – limiting the extent to which other nations can coerce China politically, an inherent, often inadvertent phenomenon in international relations as regards any state with nuclear capabilities.[178]

Space

Having witnessed the crucial role of space to United States military success in the Gulf War, China continues to view space as a critical domain in both conflict and international strategic competition.[180][181] The PLA operates a various satellite constellations performing reconnaissance, navigation, communication, and counterspace functions.[182][183][184][185]

Significant components of the PLA's space-based reconnaissance include Jianbing (vanguard) satellites with cover names Yaogan (遥感; 'remote sensing') and Gaofen (高分; 'high resolution').[182][186][187] These satellites collect electro-optical (EO) imagery to collect a literal representation of a target, synthetic aperture radar (SAR) imagery to penetrate the cloudy climates of southern China,[188] and electronic intelligence (ELINT) to provide targeting intelligence on adversarial ships.[189][190] The PLA also leverages a restricted, high-performance service of the country's BeiDou positioning, navigation, and timing (PNT) satellites for its forces and intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance (ISR) platforms.[191][192] For secure communications, the PLA uses the Zhongxing and Fenghuo series of satellites which enable secure data and voice transmission over C-band, Ku-band, and UHF.[184] PLA deployment of anti-satellite and counterspace satellites including those of the Shijian and Shiyan series have also brought significant concern from western nations.[193][194][195]

The PLA also plays a significant role in the Chinese space program.[180] To date, all the participants have been selected from members of the PLA Air Force.[180] China became the third country in the world to have sent a man into space by its own means with the flight of Yang Liwei aboard the Shenzhou 5 spacecraft on 15 October 2003,[196] the flight of Fei Junlong and Nie Haisheng aboard Shenzhou 6 on 12 October 2005,[197] and Zhai Zhigang, Liu Boming, and Jing Haipeng aboard Shenzhou 7 on 25 September 2008.[198]

The PLA started the development of an anti-ballistic and anti-satellite system in the 1960s, code named Project 640, including ground-based lasers and anti-satellite missiles.[199] On 11 January 2007, China conducted a successful test of an anti-satellite missile, with an SC-19 class KKV.[200]

The PLA has tested two types of hypersonic space vehicles, the Shenglong Spaceplane and a new one built by Chengdu Aircraft Corporation. Only a few pictures have appeared since it was revealed in late 2007. Earlier, images of the High-enthalpy Shock Waves Laboratory wind tunnel of the CAS Key Laboratory of high-temperature gas dynamics (LHD) were published in the Chinese media. Tests with speeds up to Mach 20 were reached around 2001.[201][202]

Budget

Official budget
Publication
date
Value
(billions of US$)
March 200014.6
March 200117.0
March 200220.0
March 200322.0
March 200424.6
March 200529.9
March 200635.0
March 200744.9
March 200858.8[203]
March 200970.0
March 201076.5[204]
March 201190.2[204]
March 2012103.1[204]
March 2013116.2[204]
March 2014131.2[204]
March 2015142.4[204]
March 2016143.7[204]
March 2017151.4[204]
March 2018165.5[205]
March 2019177.6[206]
May 2020183.5[207]
March 2021209.4[208]
March 2022229.4[209]
March 2023235.8

The Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI) estimated that China's military expenditure was US$292 billion in 2022, accounting for 13 percent of the world's defense expenditures.[210] China's military budget for 2014 according to Janes Information Services, a defense industry consulting and analysis company, will be US$148bn,[211] which is the second largest in the world. The United States military budget for 2014 in comparison, is US$574.9bn,[212] which is down from a high of US$664.3bn in 2012.

According to SIPRI, China became the world's third-largest exporter of major arms in 2010–2014, an increase of 143 per cent from the period 2005–2009. China supplied major arms to 35 states in 2010–2014. A significant percentage (just over 68 per cent) of Chinese exports went to three countries: Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Myanmar. China also exported major arms to 18 African states. Examples of China's increasing global presence as an arms supplier in 2010–2014 included deals with Venezuela for armored vehicles and transport and trainer aircraft, with Algeria for three frigates, with Indonesia for the supply of hundreds of anti-ship missiles and with Nigeria for the supply of several unmanned combat aerial vehicles. Following rapid advances in its domestic arms industry, China has become less dependent on arms imports, which decreased by 42 per cent between 2005–2009 and 2010–2014.[164]

China's rise in military spending come at a time when there are tensions along the South China Sea with territorial disputes involving the Philippines, Vietnam, and Taiwan, as well as escalating tensions between China and Japan involving the disputed Senkaku Islands. Former-United States Secretary of Defense Robert Gates has urged China to be more transparent about its military capabilities and intentions.[213][214] The years 2018 and 2019 both saw significant budget increases as well. China announced 2018's budget as 1.11 trillion yuan (US$165.5bn), an 8.1% increase on 2017, and 2019's budget as 1.19 trillion yuan (US$177.61bn), an increase of 7.5 per cent on 2018.[215][216]

Budget figures are published on the website of the State Council via a document named 'Central and Local Budgets' followed by the preceding year of the publication.

A pie chart showing global military expenditures by country for 2019, in US$ billions, according to SIPRI

Historical commercial activities

PLA Factory No. 6907, Wuhan. The white characters on the blue sign roughly translate to: "Secret/Classified Area, Do Not Enter Unless Invited."

Until the mid-1990s the PLA had extensive commercial enterprise holdings in non-military areas, particularly real estate. Almost all of these holdings were supposedly spun off in the mid-1990s. In most cases, the management of the companies remained unchanged, with the PLA officers running the companies simply retiring from the PLA to run the newly formed private holding companies.[217]

The history of PLA involvement in commercial enterprises began in the 1950s and 1960s. Because of the socialist state-owned system and from a desire for military self-sufficiency, the PLA created a network of enterprises such as farms, guest houses, and factories intended to financially support its own needs. One unintended side effect of the Deng-era economic reforms was that many of these enterprises became very profitable.

By the early 1990s party officials and high military officials were becoming increasingly alarmed at the military's commercial involvement for several reasons. The military's involvement in commerce was seen to adversely affect military readiness and spread corruption. Further, there was great concern that having an independent source of funding would lead to decreased loyalty to the CCP. The result of this was an effort to spin off the PLA's commercial enterprises into private companies managed by former PLA officers, and to reform military procurement from a system in which the PLA directly controls its sources of supply to a contracting system more akin to those of Western countries. Jiang Zemin restricted the PLA from engaging in commercial practices, subject to a few exceptions.[218]:78 The separation of the PLA from its commercial interests was largely complete by 2000. It was met with very little resistance, as the spinoff was arranged in such a way that few lost out.[217]

Symbols

Anthem

The Central Military Band of the People's Liberation Army of China at the Great Hall of the People. The band is a common performer of the military anthem of the PLA at ceremonial protocol events.

The March of the Chinese People's Liberation Army was adopted as the military anthem by the Central Military Commission on 25 July 1988.[219] The lyrics of the anthem were written by composer Gong Mu (real name: Zhang Yongnian; Chinese: 张永年) and the music was composed by Korea-born Chinese composer Zheng Lücheng.[220][221]

Flag and insignia

The PLA's insignia consists of a roundel with a red star bearing the two Chinese characters "八一"(literally "eight-one"), referring to the Nanchang uprising which began on 1 August 1927 (first day of the eighth month) and symbolic as the CCP's founding of the PLA.[222] The inclusion of the two characters ("八一") is symbolic of the party's revolutionary history carrying strong emotional connotations of the political power which it shed blood to obtain. The flag of the Chinese People's Liberation Army is the war flag of the People's Liberation Army; the layout of the flag has a golden star at the top left corner and "八一" to the right of the star, placed on a red field. Each service branch also has its flags: The top 58 of the flags is the same as the PLA flag; the bottom 38 are occupied by the colors of the branches.[223]

The flag of the Ground Forces has a forest green bar at the bottom. The naval ensign has stripes of blue and white at the bottom. The Air Force uses a sky blue bar. The Rocket Force uses a yellow bar at the bottom. The forest green represents the earth, the blue and white stripes represent the seas, the sky blue represents the air and the yellow represents the flare of missile launching.[224][225]

See also

References

  1. "【延安记忆】"中国人民解放军"称谓由此开始". 1 August 2020. Archived from the original on 22 August 2020. Retrieved 22 August 2020.
  2. "1947年10月10日,《中国人民解放军宣言》发布". 中国军网. 10 October 2017. Archived from the original on 22 August 2020. Retrieved 22 August 2020.
  3. "中国共产党领导的红军改编为八路军的背景和改编情况 – 太行英雄网". Archived from the original on 7 January 2022. Retrieved 7 January 2022.
  4. "解放軍地位高 農夫搶當兵 | 全球中央". 2 April 2015. Archived from the original on 3 February 2017.
  5. 1 2 The International Institute for Strategic Studies 2022, p. 255.
  6. 1 2 Tian, Nan; Fleurant, Aude; Kuimova, Alexandra; Wezeman, Pieter D.; Wezeman, Siemon T. (24 April 2022). "Trends in World Military Expenditure, 2021" (PDF). Stockholm International Peace Research Institute. Archived from the original on 25 April 2022. Retrieved 25 April 2022.
  7. Xue, Maryann (4 July 2021). "China's arms trade: which countries does it buy from and sell to?". South China Morning Post.
  8. 1 2 "TIV of arms imports/exports from China, 2010–2021". Stockholm International Peace Research Institute. 7 February 2022.
  9. 1 2 3 Benton, Gregor (1999). New Fourth Army: Communist Resistance Along the Yangtze and the Huai, 1938–1941. University of California Press. p. 396. ISBN 978-0-520-21992-2.
  10. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Fravel, M. Taylor (2019). Active Defense: China's Military Strategy since 1949. Vol. 2. Princeton University Press. doi:10.2307/j.ctv941tzj. ISBN 978-0-691-18559-0. JSTOR j.ctv941tzj. S2CID 159282413.
  11. "第十三届全国人民代表大会代表名额分配方案" [Allocation Plan for Deputies to the Thirteenth National People's Congress]. National People's Congress (in Chinese). 27 April 2017. Archived from the original on 26 June 2017.
  12. International Institute for Strategic Studies (2020). The Military Balance. London: Routledge. p. 259. ISBN 978-0367466398.
  13. "Global military spending remains high at $1.7 trillion". Stockholm International Peace Research Institute. 2 May 2018. Archived from the original on 27 May 2018. Retrieved 13 October 2018.
  14. "The PLA Navy's New Historic Missions: Expanding Capabilities for a Re-emergent Maritime Power" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 28 April 2011. Retrieved 1 April 2011.
  15. Carter, James (4 August 2021). "The Nanchang Uprising and the birth of the PLA". The China Project.
  16. "History of the PLA's Ground Force Organisational Structure and Military Regions". Royal United Services Institute. 17 June 2004.
  17. Bianco, Lucien (1971). Origins of the Chinese Revolution, 1915–1949. Stanford University Press. p. 68. ISBN 978-0-8047-0827-2.
  18. Zedong, Mao (2017). On Guerilla Warfare: Mao Tse-Tung On Guerilla Warfare. Martino Fine Books. ISBN 978-1-68422-164-6.
  19. "The Chinese Revolution of 1949". United States Department of State, Office of the Historian.
  20. Ken Allen, Chapter 9, "PLA Air Force Organization" Archived 2007-09-29 at the Wayback Machine, The PLA as Organization, ed. James C. Mulvenon and Andrew N.D. Yang (Santa Monica, CA: RAND, 2002), 349.
  21. "中国人民解放军海军成立70周年多国海军活动新闻发布会在青岛举行". mod.gov.cn (in Chinese). Ministry of National Defence of the People's Republic of China. Retrieved 18 May 2020.
  22. 1 2 3 4 Russo, Alessandro (2020). Cultural Revolution and revolutionary culture. Durham: Duke University Press. pp. 36–37. ISBN 978-1-4780-1218-4. OCLC 1156439609.
  23. "China's People's Liberation Army, the world's second largest conventional..." UPI. Retrieved 4 December 2022.
  24. Pamphlet number 30-51, Handbook on the Chinese Communist Army (PDF), Department of the Army, 7 December 1960, archived from the original (PDF) on 29 April 2011, retrieved 1 April 2011
  25. 1 2 Stewart, Richard (2015). The Korean War: The Chinese Intervention. CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform. ISBN 978-1-5192-3611-1.
  26. Cliff, Roger; Fei, John; Hagen, Jeff; Hague, Elizabeth; Heginbotham, Eric; Stillion, John (2011), "The Evolution of Chinese Air Force Doctrine", Shaking the Heavens and Splitting the Earth, Chinese Air Force Employment Concepts in the 21st Century, RAND Corporation, pp. 33–46, ISBN 978-0-8330-4932-2, JSTOR 10.7249/mg915af.10
  27. Hoffman, Steven A. (1990). India and the China Crisis. Berkeley: University of California Press. pp. 101–104. ISBN 978-0-520-30172-6. Archived from the original on 9 October 2021. Retrieved 1 October 2020.
  28. Van Tronder, Gerry (2018). Sino-Indian War: Border Clash: October–November 1962. Pen and Sword Military. ISBN 978-1-5267-2838-8. Archived from the original on 25 June 2021. Retrieved 1 October 2020.
  29. Brahma Chellaney (2006). Asian Juggernaut: The Rise of China, India, and Japan. HarperCollins. p. 195. ISBN 978-8172236502. Indeed, Beijing's acknowledgement of Indian control over Sikkim seems limited to the purpose of facilitating trade through the vertiginous Nathu-la Pass, the scene of bloody artillery duels in September 1967 when Indian troops beat back attacking Chinese forces.
  30. Van Praagh, David (2003). Greater Game: India's Race with Destiny and China. McGill-Queen's Press – MQUP. p. 301. ISBN 978-0773525887. Archived from the original on 25 December 2018. Retrieved 6 August 2021. (Indian) jawans trained and equipped for high-altitude combat used US provided artillery, deployed on higher ground than that of their adversaries, to decisive tactical advantage at Nathu La and Cho La near the Sikkim-Tibet border.
  31. Hoontrakul, Ponesak (2014), "Asia's Evolving Economic Dynamism and Political Pressures", in P. Hoontrakul; C. Balding; R. Marwah (eds.), The Global Rise of Asian Transformation: Trends and Developments in Economic Growth Dynamics, Palgrave Macmillan US, p. 37, ISBN 978-1-137-41236-2, archived from the original on 25 December 2018, retrieved 6 August 2021, Cho La incident (1967) – Victorious: India / Defeated : China
  32. 1 2 Li, Xiaobing (2007). A History of the Modern Chinese Army. University Press of Kentucky. doi:10.2307/j.ctt2jcq4k. ISBN 978-0-8131-2438-4. JSTOR j.ctt2jcq4k.
  33. "China's People's Liberation Army, the world's second largest conventional..." UPI. Retrieved 4 December 2022.
  34. Ebrey, Patricia Buckley. "Four Modernizations Era". A Visual Sourcebook of Chinese Civilization. University of Washington. Archived from the original on 7 October 2010. Retrieved 20 October 2012.
  35. 人民日报 (31 January 1963). 在上海举行的科学技术工作会议上周恩来阐述科学技术现代化的重大意义 [Science and Technology in Shanghai at the conference on Zhou Enlai explained the significance of modern science and technology]. People's Daily (in Chinese). Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party. p. 1. Archived from the original on 14 February 2016. Retrieved 21 October 2011.
  36. Mason, David (1984). "China's Four Modernizations: Blueprint for Development or Prelude to Turmoil?". Asian Affairs. 11 (3): 47–70. doi:10.1080/00927678.1984.10553699. ISSN 0092-7678. JSTOR 30171968.
  37. Vincent, Travils (9 February 2022). "Why Won't Vietnam Teach the History of the Sino-Vietnamese War?". The Diplomat.
  38. Fravel, M. Taylor (2007). "Power Shifts and Escalation: Explaining China's Use of Force in Territorial Disputes". International Security. 32 (3): 44–83. doi:10.1162/isec.2008.32.3.44. ISSN 0162-2889. JSTOR 30130518. S2CID 57559936.
  39. China and Afghanistan, Gerald Segal, Asian Survey, Vol. 21, No. 11 (Nov., 1981), University of California Press
  40. "中华人民共和国外交部".
  41. 1 2 Hilali, A.Z (September 2001). "China's response to the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan". Central Asian Survey. 20 (3): 323–351. doi:10.1080/02634930120095349. ISSN 0263-4937. S2CID 143657643.
  42. S. Frederick Starri (2004). S. Frederick Starr (ed.). Xinjiang: China's Muslim Borderland (illustrated ed.). M.E. Sharpe. p. 157. ISBN 0765613182. Archived from the original on 16 October 2015. Retrieved 22 May 2012.
  43. Szczudlik-Tatar, Justyna (October 2014). "China's Evolving Stance on Afghanistan: Towards More Robust Diplomacy with "Chinese Characteristics"" (PDF). Strategic File. Polish Institute of International Affairs. 58 (22).
  44. Galster, Steve (9 October 2001). "Volume II: Afghanistan: Lessons from the Last War". National Security Archive, George Washington University.
  45. S. Frederick Starr (2004). S. Frederick Starr (ed.). Xinjiang: China's Muslim Borderland (illustrated ed.). M.E. Sharpe. p. 158. ISBN 0765613182. Archived from the original on 19 August 2016. Retrieved 22 May 2012.
  46. Godwin, Paul H. B. (2019). The Chinese Defense Establishment: Continuity And Change In The 1980s. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-000-31540-0.
  47. Zissis, Carin (5 December 2006). "Modernizing the People's Liberation Army of China". Council on Foreign Relations.
  48. "PLA's "Absolute Loyalty" to the Party in Doubt". The Jamestown Foundation. 30 April 2009.
  49. "Xi Jinping insists on PLA's absolute loyalty to Communist Party". The Economic Times. 20 August 2018.
  50. Chan, Minnie (23 September 2022). "China's military told to 'resolutely do what the party asks it to do'". South China Morning Post.
  51. "The PLA's business interests: A long-term source of extra revenue". Strategic Comments. 3 (10): 1–2. December 1997. doi:10.1080/1356788973104. ISSN 1356-7888.
  52. Bickford, Thomas J. (1994). "The Chinese Military and Its Business Operations: The PLA as Entrepreneur". Asian Survey. 34 (5): 460–474. doi:10.2307/2645058. ISSN 0004-4687. JSTOR 2645058.
  53. 1 2 3 The Political System of the People's Republic of China. Chief Editor Pu Xingzu, Shanghai, 2005, Shanghai People's Publishing House. ISBN 7-208-05566-1, Chapter 11 The State Military System.
  54. News of the Communist Party of China, Hyperlink Archived 13 October 2006 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 28 March 2007.
  55. Farley, Robert (1 September 2021). "China Has Not Forgotten the Lessons of the Gulf War". National Interest.
  56. Scobell, Andrew (2011). Chinese Lessons from Other Peoples' Wars (PDF). Strategic Studies Institute, U.S. Army War College. ISBN 978-1-58487-511-6.
  57. Sasaki, Tomonori (23 September 2010). "China Eyes the Japanese Military: China's Threat Perception of Japan since the 1980s". The China Quarterly. 203: 560–580. doi:10.1017/S0305741010000597. ISSN 1468-2648. S2CID 153828298.
  58. Sakaguchi, Yoshiaki; Mayama, Katsuhiko (1999). "Significance of the War in Kosovo for China and Russia" (PDF). NIDS Security Reports (3): 1–23.
  59. Sun, Yun (8 April 2020). "China's Strategic Assessment of Afghanistan". War on the Rocks.
  60. 1 2 Chase, Michael S. (19 September 2007). "China's Assessment of the War in Iraq: America's "Deepest Quagmire" and the Implications for Chinese National Security". China Brief. The Jamestown Foundation. 7 (17).
  61. 1 2 Ji, You (1999). "The Revolution in Military Affairs and the Evolution of China's Strategic Thinking". Contemporary Southeast Asia. 21 (3): 344–364. doi:10.1355/CS21-3B. ISSN 0129-797X. JSTOR 25798464.
  62. Wortzel, Larry M. (2007). "The Chinese People's Liberation Army and Space Warfare". American Enterprise Institute. JSTOR resrep03013. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  63. Hjortdal, Magnus (2011). "China's Use of Cyber Warfare: Espionage Meets Strategic Deterrence". Journal of Strategic Security. 4 (2): 1–24. doi:10.5038/1944-0472.4.2.1. ISSN 1944-0464. JSTOR 26463924. S2CID 145083379.
  64. Jinghua, Lyu. "What Are China's Cyber Capabilities and Intentions?". Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. Retrieved 12 November 2022.
  65. 1 2 3 4 5 Shinn, David H.; Eisenman, Joshua (2023). China's Relations with Africa: a New Era of Strategic Engagement. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-21001-0.
  66. Osborn, Kris (21 March 2022). "China Modernizes Its Russian-Built Destroyers With New Weapons". The National Interest. Retrieved 12 November 2022.
  67. Gao, Charlie (1 January 2021). "How China Got Their Own Russian-Made Su-27 "Flanker" Jets". The National Interest. Retrieved 12 November 2022.
  68. Kadam, Tanmay (26 September 2022). "2 Russian Su-30 Fighters, The Backbone Of Indian & Chinese Air Force, Knocked Out By Ukraine – Kiev Claims". The Eurasian Times. Retrieved 12 November 2022.
  69. Larson, Caleb (11 May 2021). "China's Deadly Kilo-Class Submarines Are From Russia With Love". The National Interest. Retrieved 12 November 2022.
  70. Vavasseur, Xavier (21 August 2022). "Five Type 052D Destroyers Under Construction In China". Naval News.
  71. Wertheim, Eric (January 2020). "China's Luyang III/Type 052D Destroyer Is a Potent Adversary". United States Naval Institute.
  72. Rogoway, Tyler; Helfrich, Emma (18 July 2022). "China's J-10 Fighter Spotted In New 'Big Spine' Configuration (Updated)". The Warzone.
  73. Osborn, Kris (4 October 2022). "China Boosts J-20 Fighter Production to Counter U.S. Stealth Fighters". The National Interest. Retrieved 12 November 2022.
  74. Funaiole, Matthew P. (4 August 2021). "A Glimpse of Chinese Ballistic Missile Submarines". Center for Strategic & International Studies.
  75. Lendon, Brad (25 June 2022). "Never mind China's new aircraft carrier, these are the ships the US should worry about". CNN. Retrieved 12 November 2022.
  76. "Fujian aircraft carrier doesn't have radar, weapon systems yet, photos show". South China Morning Post. 19 July 2022. Retrieved 12 November 2022.
  77. Hendrix, Jerry (6 July 2022). "The Ominous Portent of China's New Carrier". National Review. Retrieved 12 November 2022.
  78. "China establishes Rocket Force and Strategic Support Force – China Military Online". Archived from the original on 10 April 2016. Retrieved 2 January 2016.
  79. "Exclusive: Massive parade tipped for PLA's 90th birthday". South China Morning Post. 15 March 2017. Retrieved 12 November 2022.
  80. Buckley, Chris (30 July 2017). "China Shows Off Military Might as Xi Jinping Tries to Cement Power". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 12 October 2021.
  81. Yew Lun Tian, Laurie Chen, James Pomfret, and Sharon Singleton. Reuters reporters and editors. (30 December 2023). "ANALYSIS-Sweeping Chinese military purge exposes weakness, could widen". Nasdaq website Retrieved 31 Dec 2023.
  82. "Charting China's 'great purge' under Xi". BBC News. 22 October 2017. Retrieved 1 January 2024.
  83. Gowan, Richard (14 September 2020). "China's pragmatic approach to UN peacekeeping". Brookings Institution. Retrieved 12 November 2022.
  84. 1 2 3 4 Rowland, Daniel T. (September 2022). Chinese Security Cooperation Activities: Trends and Implications for US Policy (PDF) (Report).
  85. China's Role in UN Peacekeeping (PDF) (Report). Institute for Security & Development Policy. March 2018.
  86. Daniel M. Hartnett, 2012-03-13, China's First Deployment of Combat Forces to a UN. Peacekeeping Mission—South Sudan Archived 14 October 2012 at the Wayback Machine, United States-China Economic and Security Review Commission
  87. Bernard Yudkin Geoxavier, 2012-09-18, China as Peacekeeper: An Updated Perspective on Humanitarian Intervention Archived 31 January 2013 at the Wayback Machine, Yale Journal of International Affairs
  88. "Chinese Peacekeepers to Haiti: Much Attention, More Confusion". Royal United Services Institute. 1 February 2005.
  89. Nichols, Michelle (14 July 2022). "China pushes for U.N. arms embargo on Haiti criminal gangs". Reuters.
  90. Dyrenforth, Thomas (19 August 2021). "Beijing's Blue Helmets: What to Make of China's Role in UN Peacekeeping in Africa". Modern War Institute. Retrieved 12 November 2022.
  91. Lew, Christopher R.; Leung, Pak-Wah, eds. (2013). Historical Dictionary of the Chinese Civil War. Lanham, Maryland: The Scarecrow Press, Inc. p. 3. ISBN 978-0810878730.
  92. Paine, S. C. M. (2012). The Wars for Asia, 1911–1949. Cambridge University Press. p. 123. ISBN 978-1-139-56087-0. Archived from the original on 12 October 2022. Retrieved 28 November 2017.
  93. "Security Check Required". Archived from the original on 14 April 2015. Retrieved 1 May 2016.
  94. "Sinkiang and Sino-Soviet Relations" (PDF). Retrieved 14 March 2017.
  95. Shakya 1999 p. 32 (6 Oct); Goldstein (1997), p. 45 (7 Oct).
  96. Ryan, Mark A.; Finkelstein, David M.; McDevitt, Michael A. (2003). Chinese warfighting: The PLA experience since 1949. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe. p. 125. ISBN 0-7656-1087-6.
  97. Rushkoff, Bennett C. (1981). "Eisenhower, Dulles and the Quemoy-Matsu Crisis, 1954–1955". Political Science Quarterly. 96 (3): 465–480. doi:10.2307/2150556. ISSN 0032-3195. JSTOR 2150556.
  98. Zhai, Qiang (2000). China and the Vietnam wars, 1950–1975. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 978-0807825327. OCLC 41564973.
  99. The 1958 Taiwan Straits Crisis_ A Documented History. 1975.
  100. Lintner, Bertil (2018). China's India War: Collision Course on the Roof of the World. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-909163-8. OCLC 1034558154.
  101. Brahma Chellaney (2006). Asian Juggernaut: The Rise of China, India, and Japan. HarperCollins. p. 195. ISBN 978-8172236502. Indeed, Beijing's acknowledgement of Indian control over Sikkim seems limited to the purpose of facilitating trade through the vertiginous Nathu-la Pass, the scene of bloody artillery duels in September 1967 when Indian troops beat back attacking Chinese forces.
  102. "Некоторые малоизвестные эпизоды пограничного конфликта на о. Даманском". Военное оружие и армии Мира. Archived from the original on 11 March 2018. Retrieved 10 March 2018.
  103. Carl O. Schustser. "Battle for Paracel Islands".
  104. Elleman, Bruce A. (2001). Modern Chinese Warfare, 1795–1989. Routledge. p. 297. ISBN 0415214742.
  105. Carlyle A. Thayer, "Security Issues in Southeast Asia: The Third Indochina War", Conference on Security and Arms Control in the North Pacific, Australian National University, Canberra, August 1987.
  106. Koo, Min Gyo (2010). Island Disputes and Maritime Regime Building in East Asia. The Political Economy of the Asia Pacific. New York, NY: Springer New York. p. 154. doi:10.1007/978-0-387-89670-0. ISBN 978-0-387-89669-4.
  107. McFadden, Robert D. (5 June 1989). "The West Condemns the Crackdown". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 25 May 2021.
  108. Dreyer, June Teufel (2005). "China's Vulnerability to Minority Separatism". Asian Affairs. 32 (2): 69–85. doi:10.3200/AAFS.32.2.69-86. ISSN 0092-7678. JSTOR 30172869. S2CID 153883722.
  109. Qimao, Chen (1996). "The Taiwan Strait Crisis: Its Crux and Solutions". Asian Survey. 36 (11): 1055–1066. doi:10.2307/2645635. ISSN 0004-4687. JSTOR 2645635.
  110. Henry, Jérôme (November 2016). "China's Military Deployments in the Gulf of Aden: Anti-Piracy and Beyond" (PDF). Notes de l'Ifri (89).
  111. Torode, Greg (13 March 2014). "A nervous region eyes robust Chinese response to missing Malaysian plane". Reuters.
  112. "Troop and police contributors". United Nations Peacekeeping. Retrieved 29 October 2021.
  113. "UNMISS Fact Sheet". UNMISS. Retrieved 22 December 2017.
  114. Tellis, Ashley J. (June 2020). Hustling in the Himalayas: The Sino-Indian Border Confrontation (PDF). Carnegie Endowment for International Peace (Report). Retrieved 29 June 2020. These efforts to bring new territorial enclaves under Chinese control are occurring simultaneously at several different locations, such as on the northern bank of the Pangong Tso, at Hot Springs, and in the Galwan Valley, places that all lie astride the LAC in eastern Ladakh
  115. "中华人民共和国国防法". Ministry of National Defense of the People's Republic of China. 27 December 2020. Retrieved 24 September 2023.
  116. 1 2 3 Liu, Zhen (18 October 2022). "What is China's Central Military Commission and why is it so powerful?". South China Morning Post. Retrieved 18 September 2023.
  117. The Political System of the People's Republic of China. Chief Editor Pu Xingzu, Shanghai, 2005, Shanghai People's Publishing House. ISBN 7-208-05566-1 Chapter 11, the State Military System, pp. 369–392.
  118. "Xi Jinping Has a New Title: Commander-in-Chief of the People's Liberation Army". The Diplomat. Archived from the original on 6 October 2021. Retrieved 30 September 2021.
  119. 1 2 Lague, David; Lim, Benjamin Kang (23 April 2019). "How China is replacing America as Asia's military titan". Reuters. Retrieved 10 January 2020.
  120. 1 2 3 "Xi Jinping is obsessed with political loyalty in the PLA". The Economist. 6 November 2023. ISSN 0013-0613. Retrieved 7 November 2023.
  121. 1 2 Torode, Greg; Tian, Yew Lun (20 September 2023). "Li Shangfu: Who is China's missing defence minister and how important is he?". Reuters. Retrieved 24 September 2023.
  122. 1 2 "军事制度" [Military System]. China.org.cn. Archived from the original on 13 June 2007. Retrieved 7 November 2023.
  123. 1 2 3 Allen, Kenneth; Chao, Brian; Kinsella, Ryan (4 March 2013). "China's Military Political Commissar System in Comparative Perspective". Jamestown Foundation. Archived from the original on 21 October 2020. Retrieved 7 November 2023.
  124. "Considerations for replacing Military Area Commands with Theater Commands". english.chinamil.com.cn. Archived from the original on 23 February 2018. Retrieved 13 January 2019.
  125. Xi declares victory over old rivals Jiang, Hu Archived 27 February 2016 at the Wayback Machine Asia Nikkei Asian Review, 11 Feb 2016
  126. Army Techniques Publication 7-100.3: Chinese Tactics (PDF). Washington, D.C.: Headquarters, United States Army. 2021. p. 34. ISBN 979-8457607118.
  127. "2.12 The military and politics," in: Sebastian Heilmann, editor, ["China's Political System – Mercator Institute for China Studies". Archived from the original on 23 March 2017. Retrieved 11 May 2017. China's Political System], Lanham, Boulder, New York, London: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers (2017) ISBN 978-1442277342
  128. "China establishes Joint Logistic Support Force - China Military". Archived from the original on 22 January 2021. Retrieved 17 January 2021.
  129. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Ping, Xu (7 August 2017). "我军建军九十年军衔制度沿革" [The evolution of our military rank system over the ninety years of its establishment]. mod.gov.cn (in Chinese). Ministry of National Defense. Archived from the original on 28 December 2019. Retrieved 13 June 2021.
  130. Wong, Edward; Perlez, Jane; Buckley, Chris (2 September 2015). "China Announces Cuts of 300,000 Troops at Military Parade Showing Its Might". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 2 September 2015. Retrieved 10 January 2020.
  131. China plans military reform to enhance its readiness Archived 2 January 2014 at the Wayback Machine – The-Japan-news.com
  132. International Institute for Strategic Studies: The Military Balance 2020, p. 260.
  133. Jia Nan (贾楠) (5 July 2021). 4人晋升上将!. Sina (in Chinese). Retrieved 6 July 2021.
  134. 文罗摩 [@wenluomo] (21 January 2022). "General Qin Shutong, Political Commissar of PLA Ground Forces; Admiral Yuan Huazhi, Political Commissar, PLAN; General Li Yuchao, Commander of PLA Rocket Force & General Zhang Hongbing, Political Commissar of People's Armed Police Force" (Tweet) via Twitter.
  135. Chi-yuk, Choi (27 May 2013). "PLA Navy's three fleets meet in South China Sea for rare show of force". South China Morning Post.
  136. International Institute for Strategic Studies (2020). The Military Balance 2020. Routledge. p. 261. ISBN 978-0367466398. Archived from the original on 23 April 2022. Retrieved 29 December 2020.
  137. The PLA Navy: New Capabilities and Missions for the 21st Century (PDF) (Report). Washington, D.C.: Office of Naval Intelligence. 2 December 2015.
  138. International Institute for Strategic Studies (2020). The Military Balance 2020. Routledge. pp. 263–264. ISBN 978-0367466398. Archived from the original on 15 February 2022. Retrieved 29 December 2020.
  139. Farley, Robert (10 November 2021). "Does China Qualify as Having a True Blue Water Navy?". The National Interest.
  140. "China launches two destroyers with tech similar to US Navy's Aegis system". 3 July 2018. Retrieved 6 July 2018.
  141. Military and Security Developments Involving the People's Republic of China 2020 Annual Report to Congress (PDF). U.S. Department of Defense. 9 July 2021.
  142. 习近平今再晋升5名上将. rfi.fr (in Chinese). 6 September 2021. Retrieved 7 September 2021.
  143. International Institute for Strategic Studies (2018). The Military Balance 2018. Routledge. pp. 249–259. ISBN 978-1-85743-955-7. Archived from the original on 23 March 2019. Retrieved 13 October 2018.
  144. Chang 2002
  145. Coniglio 2006, P.44
  146. Marcus, Clay; Rod, Lee (24 September 2021). "Star General Chang Dingqiu Takes Command of China's Air Force". The Diplomat. Retrieved 9 October 2021.
  147. "[军事报道]张又侠在出席中央军委纪委扩大会议时强调 坚决贯彻全面从严治党战略方针 深入做好新时代军队纪检监察工作" [[Military Report] Zhang Youxia, when attending the enlarged meeting of the Disciplinary Commission of the Central Military Commission, emphasized that we must resolutely implement the strategic policy of strictly governing the party in an all-round way and do a good job in the military discipline inspection and supervision work in the new era.]. [[China Central Television] (in Chinese). 22 January 2022. Archived from the original on 22 January 2022.
  148. 1 2 International Institute for Strategic Studies (2020). The Military Balance 2020. Routledge. p. 259. ISBN 978-0367466398. Archived from the original on 15 February 2022. Retrieved 29 October 2020.
  149. Lee, Roderick; Béraud-Sudreau, Lucie; Brewster, David; Cairns, Christopher; Ellis, R. Evan; Herlevi, April; Nantulya, Paul; Nouwens, Meia; Pincus, Rebecca; Wuthnow, Joel (2022). "PLA Rocket Force as a Service: New Team Player or Increasingly Irrelevant?". Enabling a More Externally Focused and Operational Pla – 2020 Pla Conference Papers: 133–154.
  150. Kristensen, Hans M.; Korda, Matt (2 November 2021). "Chinese nuclear weapons, 2021". Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. 77 (6): 318–336. Bibcode:2021BuAtS..77f.318K. doi:10.1080/00963402.2021.1989208. ISSN 0096-3402. S2CID 244118657.
  151. Ma Xiu [@@conanwhatisbest] (25 March 2022). "More on Li Yuchao's promotion to PLARF commander: Li previously commanded Base 63, a primarily nuclear Base. General wisdom was that the PLARF has traditionally emphasized conventional force officers for senior promotion. Evidence of a shift in priorities toward nuclear force?" (Tweet) via Twitter.
  152. Xiu, Ma (24 October 2022). PLA Rocket Force Organization (PDF) (Report). China Aerospace Studies Institute.
  153. "China Takes Bold Steps Toward Military Reform". Stratfor. Archived from the original on 26 May 2020. Retrieved 31 March 2016.
  154. Yao, Jianing. "Expert: PLA Strategic Support Force a key force to win wars – China Military Online". english.chinamil.com.cn. Archived from the original on 5 May 2016. Retrieved 31 March 2016.
  155. Kang Shi-ren (康世人) (2 April 2015). "解放軍地位高 農夫搶當兵" [The PLA is respected, peasants are scrambling to join the army]. Central News Agency (Republic of China). Archived from the original on 3 February 2017.
  156. Constitution of the People's Republic of China
  157. "今年征兵准备工作全面展开 国防部征兵办公室下发通知确保高质量完成征兵任务 (The Preparation of Conscription in This Year Has Begun. Ministry of Defence Announced That the Conscription should be finished in high quality)". Xinhua News Agency. 11 January 2016. Archived from the original on 1 October 2017. Retrieved 17 June 2018.
  158. The Standard, 5 March 2008, Volume 1, No. 134, Major jump in military spending, Alarm raised over cyber, space advance, the Pentagon said in a report. … "The PLA is also exploring satellite jammers, kinetic-energy weapons, high-powered lasers, high-powered microwave weapons, particle-beam weapons, and electromagnetic pulse weapons for counterspace application", it said, adding it was not clear if the cyber intrusions were backed by the military.
  159. Lague, David (19 December 2013). "Chinese military's secret to success: European engineering". Reuters. Archived from the original on 20 December 2013. Retrieved 20 December 2013.
  160. Lague, David. "Insight: From a ferry, a Chinese fast-attack boat." Archived 16 November 2021 at the Wayback Machine Reuters, 31 May 2012.
  161. "U.S. up in arms over Sino-Israeli ties". Asia Times. 21 December 2004. Archived from the original on 16 May 2008. Retrieved 11 June 2008.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  162. "The United States leads upward trend in arms exports, Asian and Gulf states arms imports up, says SIPRI". sipri.org. Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI). 16 March 2015. Archived from the original on 9 April 2016. Retrieved 18 March 2015.
  163. "New SIPRI data reveals scale of Chinese arms industry". Stockholm International Peace Research Institute. 27 January 2020. Archived from the original on 27 January 2020. Retrieved 27 January 2020.
  164. 1 2 3 4 "Trends in International Arms Transfer, 2014". Stockholm International Peace Research Institute. Archived from the original on 19 March 2015. Retrieved 18 March 2015.
  165. "Biden airs hypersonic missile fears as probable ambassador labels China 'untrustworthy'". Deutsche Welle. 20 October 2021. Archived from the original on 28 October 2021. Retrieved 24 October 2021.
  166. "China successfully tested hypersonic weapon in August: report". Space.com. 17 October 2021. Archived from the original on 24 October 2021. Retrieved 24 October 2021.
  167. Bonny Lin, Matthew P. Funaiole, Brian Hart, et.al. China Power Project. (2023). "How Deep Are China-Russia Military Ties?". Center for Strategic and International Studies website Retrieved 7 August 2023.
  168. Michael R. Gordon and Nancy A. Youssef. (6 Aug 2023). "Russia and China Sent Large Naval Patrol Near Alaska". Wall Street Journal website Retrieved 7 August 2023.
  169. Gorman, Siobhan (8 April 2009). "Electricity Grid in U.S. Penetrated By Spies". The Wall Street Journal. Archived from the original on 8 January 2015. Retrieved 1 April 2011.
  170. Krekel, Bryan (2009), Capability of the People's Republic of China to Conduct Cyber Warfare and Computer Network Exploitation (PDF), Northrop Grumman, archived from the original (PDF) on 3 February 2011
  171. Qiao, Liang; Wang, Xiangsui (1999), Unrestricted Warfare (PDF), PLA Literature and Arts Publishing House via Foreign Broadcast Information Service, archived from the original (PDF) on 15 August 2000
  172. Beech, Hannah. "Meet China's Newest Soldiers: An Online Blue Army." Archived 27 May 2011 at the Wayback Machine Time, 27 May 2011.
  173. Sanger, David E. (18 February 2013). "China's Army Is Seen as Tied to Hacking Against U.S". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 10 March 2017. Retrieved 28 February 2017.
  174. "U.S. Charges Five Chinese Military Hackers for Cyber Espionage . . . " Archived 3 December 2015 at the Wayback Machine, 19 May 2014, justice.gov
  175. "5 in China Army Face U.S. Charges of Cyberattacks" Archived 19 May 2017 at the Wayback Machine, 19 May 2014, NY Times
  176. "Data from Equifax credit hack could "end up on the black market," expert warns". CBS News. 11 February 2020. Archived from the original on 2 July 2020. Retrieved 11 February 2020.
  177. "Four Members of China's Military Indicted Over Massive Equifax Breach". The Wall Street Journal. 11 February 2020. Archived from the original on 29 May 2020. Retrieved 28 April 2020.
  178. 1 2 3 "Military Power of the People's Republic of China" (PDF). U.S. Department of Defense. 2007. pp. 19–20. Retrieved 13 November 2022.
  179. "Annual Report to Congress – Military and Security Developments Involving the People's Republic of China" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 January 2015. Retrieved 23 June 2013.
  180. 1 2 3 Cheng, Dean (2012). "China's military role in space" (PDF). Strategic Studies Quarterly. 6 (1): 55–77 via Air University.
  181. "China's National Defense in the New Era". Andrew S. Erickson: China analysis from original sources. July 2019.
  182. 1 2 Clark, Stephen (29 January 2021). "China launches military spy satellite trio into orbit". Spaceflight Now. Archived from the original on 23 October 2022.
  183. "China GPS rival Beidou starts offering navigation data". BBC. 27 December 2011. Archived from the original on 3 February 2012. Retrieved 20 June 2018.
  184. 1 2 Bruce, Leo (26 November 2021). "China successfully launches tactical military communications satellite". NASA Spaceflight.
  185. Dickinson, General James H. (21 April 2021). United States Space Command Presentation to the Senate Armed Services Committee U.S. Senate (PDF) (Report).
  186. Jonathan McDowell [@planet4589] (8 April 2021). "The Jianbing-7 03 radar satellite, cover name Yaogan 18, reentered at 0035 UTC Apr 7 over the South Atlantic. It was launched in Oct 2013, operated until Feb 2019, and had its orbit lowered from Apr-Jul 2020; it underwent uncontrolled decay since 2020 Jul 7" (Tweet). Archived from the original on 3 July 2022 via Twitter.
  187. Jones, Andrew (22 November 2021). "China launches new Gaofen-11 high resolution spy satellite to match U.S. capabilities". SpaceNews.
  188. "JianBing 5 (YaoGan WeiXing 1/3) Synthetic Aperture Radar". Sino Defense. 12 November 2007. Archived from the original on 21 April 2008. Retrieved 18 May 2022.
  189. "The Chinese Maritime Surveillance System". SatelliteObservation.net. 20 September 2016. Archived from the original on 17 March 2022.
  190. Blizzard, Timothy J. (2016). "The PLA, A2/AD and the ADF: Lessons for Future Maritime Strategy". Security Challenges. 12 (3): 69–70. JSTOR 26465599.
  191. "Precise orbit determination of Beidou Satellites with precise positioning". Science China. 2012. Archived from the original on 17 June 2013. Retrieved 26 June 2013.
  192. Dotson, John (15 July 2020). "The Beidou Satellite Network and the 'Space Silk Road' in Eurasia". Jamestown. Retrieved 16 July 2020.
  193. Smith, Marcia (19 August 2013). "Surprise Chinese Satellite Maneuvers Mystify Western Experts". SpacePolicyOnline.
  194. Dickinson, General James H. (21 April 2021). United States Space Command Presentation to the Senate Armed Services Committee U.S. Senate (PDF) (Report).
  195. Jones, Andrew (27 January 2022). "China's Shijian-21 towed dead satellite to a high graveyard orbit". SpaceNews.
  196. Yardley, Jim (15 October 2003). "China Sends a Man Into Orbit, Entering the U.S.–Russian Club". The New York Times.
  197. Mali, Tariq (18 October 2005). "Shenzhou 6 Taikonauts Achieve Firsts for China". SpaceNews.
  198. Jones, Andrew (7 November 2021). "China's Shenzhou 13 crew takes its first spacewalk, the country's 1st by a female astronaut". Space.com.
  199. Stokes, Mark A. (1999). China's Strategic Modernization: Implications for the United States. Diane Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4289-1197-0.
  200. China plays down fears after satellite shot down Archived 29 September 2011 at the Wayback Machine, AFP via Channelnewsasia, 20 January 2007
  201. "氢氧爆轰驱动激波高焓风洞". 中国科学院高温气体动力学重点实验室. 17 March 2005. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 16 April 2008.
  202. Fisher, Jr., Richard (29 June 2011). "PLA and U.S. Arms Racing in the Western Pacific". International Assessment and Strategy Center. Archived from the original on 31 January 2014. Retrieved 20 June 2012. It is also possible that during this decade the PLA Navy could deploy initial railgun and laser weapons. It is known that the PLA has invested heavily in both technologies.
  203. Lague, David (4 March 2008). "China increases military spending". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 26 November 2020. Retrieved 10 February 2020.
  204. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 "What does China really spend on its military?". 28 December 2015. Archived from the original on 16 August 2018. Retrieved 15 August 2018.
  205. "China says defence spending increase to be 'appropriate' | News | al Jazeera". Archived from the original on 13 May 2019. Retrieved 13 May 2019.
  206. "China Sets Date for 'Two Sessions' in Latest Move Toward Post-COVID Normal". Archived from the original on 5 May 2020. Retrieved 6 May 2020.
  207. "What Does China Really Spend on its Military?". 28 December 2015. Archived from the original on 16 August 2018. Retrieved 15 August 2018.
  208. Grevatt, Jon; Andrew, MacDonald (5 March 2021). "China announces 6.8% increase in 2021 defence budget". Janes. Archived from the original on 28 April 2021. Retrieved 28 April 2021.
  209. Yew Lun Tian (5 March 2022). "China plans 7.1% defence spending rise this year, outpacing GDP target". Reuters. Archived from the original on 5 March 2022. Retrieved 5 March 2022.
  210. "Trends in World Military Expenditure, 2022" (PDF). Stockholm International Peace Research Institute. April 2023. Retrieved 29 April 2023.
  211. Ramzy, Austin (4 February 2014). "Middle East, Russia and China fuel 2014 global defense spending surge: report". The Washington Times. Archived from the original on 24 February 2014. Retrieved 24 February 2014.
  212. Lawrence, Dune (3 February 2014). "China to Ramp Up Military Spending". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 12 March 2014. Retrieved 24 February 2014.
  213. "US, China need transparent military ties: Gates." Archived 3 June 2009 at the Wayback Machine Agence France-Presse, 30 May 2009.
  214. "Amid development of stealth fighter, aircraft carrier, China insists its military not a threat." Archived 23 March 2019 at the Wayback Machine Associated Press, 13 June 2011.
  215. Shepherd, Christian; Martina, Michael (4 March 2018). "China boosts defense spending, rattling its neighbors' nerves". Reuters. Archived from the original on 9 May 2019. Retrieved 9 May 2019.
  216. Olsen, Kelly (5 March 2019). "China's defense spending is growing more slowly. But that doesn't mean military tensions are easing". CNBC. Archived from the original on 20 April 2019. Retrieved 9 May 2019.
  217. 1 2 Chan, Minnie; Zhen, Liu (28 November 2015). "China's President Xi Jinping wants 'PLA Inc' to stop its song and dance, plans end for profit-making activities". South China Morning Post. Archived from the original on 28 November 2015. Retrieved 28 November 2015.
  218. Šebok, Filip (2023). "China's Political System". In Kironska, Kristina; Turscanyi, Richard Q. (eds.). Contemporary China: a New Superpower?. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-03-239508-1.
  219. "1988年7月25日,中央軍事委員會決定將《中國人民解放軍進行曲》,定為中國人民解放軍的軍歌。" [July 25, 1988: March of the Chinese People's Liberation Army is designate as the military song of the People's Liberation Army]. Our China Story (in Chinese). 25 July 2021.
  220. "军歌歌词是怎样变迁的?那些"飘扬的旗帜"" [How did the lyrics of military songs change? Those "Flags Waving"]. China News Service (in Chinese). 16 July 2010.
  221. Lee, Lily Xiao Hong; Wiles, Sue (28 January 2015). Biographical Dictionary of Chinese Women, Volume II (0 ed.). Routledge. p. 145. doi:10.4324/9781315719313. ISBN 978-1-317-51562-3. ... situation of their conflicting nationalities by returning to China, where Zheng Lücheng took out Chinese citizenship. ... PRC, Zheng Lücheng was active in his work as a composer; he wrote the music for the Western-style opera Cloud Gazing.
  222. Wu, Fei (1 October 2009). "Military Parade Marks Anniversary". China Daily. Xinhua. Retrieved 4 November 2009.
  223. "81 Flag and Other Signs" (in Chinese). Archived from the original on 1 December 2018. Retrieved 4 November 2009.
  224. "Flag, Emblem and Song of the People's Liberation Army". Xinhua Net News (in Chinese). Xinhua. 23 June 2004. Archived from the original on 11 July 2016. Retrieved 4 November 2009.
  225. "Uniform of Rocket Force". People's Daily (in Chinese). 1 July 2016. Archived from the original on 4 November 2020. Retrieved 6 July 2016.

Works cited

Further reading

History

  • Dreyer, Edward L. (1995). China at War: 1901–1949. Pearson Longman. ISBN 9780582051232.
  • Fravel, M. Taylor (2019). Active Defense: China's Military Strategy Since 1949. Princeton University Press. ISBN 9780691210339.
  • Li, Xiaobing (2007). A History of the Modern Chinese Army. University Press of Kentucky. ISBN 9780813172248.
  • Whitson, William W.; Huang, Zhenxia; Chên-hsia, Huang (1973). The Chinese High Command: A History of Communist Military Politics, 1927–71. Praeger. ISBN 978-0333150535.

Present-day

This article is issued from Wikipedia. The text is licensed under Creative Commons - Attribution - Sharealike. Additional terms may apply for the media files.