Shrinathji (at center) with Ashtasakhis

Pushtimarg (lit. 'the Path of Nourishing, Flourishing'), also known as Vallabha Sampradaya, is a subtradition of the Rudra Sampradaya - Vaishnavism. It was founded in the early 16th century by Vallabhacharya (1479–1531) and was later expanded by his descendants, particularly Vitthalanatha.[1][2] Pushtimarg adherents either worship Krishna alone in his prominent forms of Shrinathji, Madanamohana, Vitthala, and Dvarakadhisha, or with his consort and divine energy Radha, also called Swaminiji.[3][4][5] The tradition follows universal-love-themed devotional practices of youthful Krishna which are found in the Bhagavata Purana and those related to pastimes of Govardhana Hill.[1][6][7]

The Pushtimarg subtradition subscribes to the Shuddhadvaita Vedantic teachings of Vallabhacharya, one that shares certain ideas with Advaita Vedanta, Vishishtadvaita and Dvaita Vedanta.[8] According to this philosophy, Krishna is considered to be the supreme being, the source of everything that exists and the human soul is imbued with Krishna's divine light and spiritual liberation results from Krishna's grace.[9] Ashtachap – eight Bhakti Movement poets, including the blind devotee-poet Surdas has major contribution in the growth of Pushtimarg.[9][10]

The followers of this tradition are called Pushtimargis[2] or Pushtimargiya Vaishnavas.[11] It has significant following in Indian states of Rajasthan and Gujarat, as well as its regional diaspora around the world.[1][12] The Shrinathji Temple in Nathdwara is the main shrine of Pushtimarg, which traces its origin back to 1669.[13][12]

Founder and History

Vallabhacharya discovers Sri Nathji, at Mount Govardhan

Vallabhacharya was born into a Telugu Brahmin family in South India.[14] Vallabha's family fled Varanasi after they learnt about an imminent Islamic attack on the city, then spent the early years with baby Vallabha hiding in the forests of Chhattisgarh.[14]

As part of his education, Vallabha studied Vedic literature and other Hindu texts. He worked in the temples of the Vijayanagara court, and then embarked on a years-long pilgrimage to the major sacred sites of Hinduism on the Indian subcontinent.[14] He met scholars of Advaita Vedanta, Vishishtadvaita, Dvaita Vedanta, as well as his contemporary, Chaitanya Mahaprabhu. His visit to Vrindavan in the north persuaded him to accept and dedicate himself to the bhakti of Krishna and writing his philosophical premises in Sanskrit and a few in the Braj language. His devotional mantra "Sri Krishna Sharanam Mam" (Shri Krishna is my refuge) became the initiatory mantra of Pushtimargis.[14] The term pushti to Vallabha implied "spiritual nourishment", a metaphor for Krishna's grace.[14][15]

Vallabhacharya has been a major scholar of the Bhakti tradition of Hinduism, as a devotional movement that emphasizes love and grace of God as an end in itself. Vallabhacharya initiated his first disciple Damodardas Harsani with a mantra along with the principles of Pushtimarga.[12]

When he died in 1531, Vallabacharya delivered the leadership of his movement to his elder son, Gopinatha. At Gopinatha's death in 1543, he was succeeded by his younger brother Vitthalanatha, a key figure in the development of the Pushtimarg. He codified the doctrine of the movement and died in 1586. At his death, the eight primary icons of Krishna of the Pushtimarg were distributed among his seven sons, plus one adopted son.[16] Some fragmentation followed, as each son of Vitthalanatha was able to confer initiations and start his own independent lineage, although the different branches remained unified by the doctrine. Among the descendants of Vitthalanatha, some acquired prestige as scholars, including Gokulanatha (1552-1641), Harirayaji Mahaprabhu (1591-1711), and Purusottamalalji (1668-1725).[17]

In the 20th century, the Pushtimarg prospered thanks to the acquired affluence of some of its members, primarily Gujarati merchants. The Gujarati diaspora led to the foundation of important Pushtimarg centers in the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, Australia, and New Zealand.[18]

Key Tenets

Śuddhādvaita

According to Vallabha, the society of his time was ridden with ills such as bloodshed, barbarians, foreigners, the departing of gods from temples, an impure Ganges river, the presence of heterodox communities, ineffective religious rites, dissappearance of the caste system, and the prevalence of greed, hypocrisy, and impurity. In response Vallabha formulated the philosophy of Śuddhādvaita, in opposition to the Ādvaita Vedānta of Śaṅkara, which he called Maryādā Mārga or Path of Limitations. Vallabha rejected the concept of Māyā, stating that the world was a manifestation of the Supreme Absolute and could not be tainted, nor could it change.[19] According to Vallabha, Brahman consists of existence (sat), consciousness (chit), and bliss (ananda), and manifests completely as Kr̥ṣṇa himself.[7]

If someone forgot this truth about Kr̥ṣṇa and his nature, it was due to ignorance derived from material attachments. However, for certain select individuals this ignorance could be removed through divine grace (puṣṭi) that would move one to a path of devotion where one would rely on Kr̥ṣṇa's grace alone. Such people who were admitted into the Path of Grace or Puṣṭi Mārga.[20]

The purpose of this tradition is to perform sevā (selfless service) out of love for Kr̥ṣṇa. According to Vallabhacharya, through single minded religiosity, a devotee would achieve awareness that there is nothing in the word that is not Kr̥ṣṇa.[20]

Vallabha stated that religious disciplines that focused on Vedic sacrifices, temple rituals, puja, meditation, and yoga had limited value. The school rejects ascetic lifestyle and cherishes householder lifestyle, wherein the followers see themselves as participants and companions of Krishna, and their daily life as an ongoing raslila.[9]

Texts

Vallabha acception four prior works as the major bases for his doctrines: the Vedas, the Bhagavad Gītā, the Brahma Sūtra, and the Bhāgavata Purāṇa.[21] He himself composed many philosophical and devotional books during his lifetime which includes:[22]

  1. Subhodinī, a partial commentary on the Bhāgavata Purāṇa
  2. Aṇubhāṣya, a partial commentary on the Brahmasūtra of Bādarāyaṇa
  3. Tattvārthadīpanibandha, a text interpreting existing Hindu scriptures through Vallabha's philosophy of Śuddhādvaita
  4. Tattvārthadīpanibandhaprakāśa, a commentary on the Tattvārthadīpanibandha
  5. Ṣoḍaśagrantha, sixteen treatises on important facets of Śuddhādvaita and theology of the Puṣṭimārga

Later figures author prose texts in Braj Bhasha, most notably the Caurāsī Vaiṣṇavan kī Vārtā by Vallabhācārya's grandson Gokulnāth (1552-1641) and Gokulnāth's grandnephew Harirāy (1590-1715). The Caurāsī Vaiṣṇavan kī Vārtā details accounts of 84 Vaiṣṇava devotees of the Puṣṭimārga who were the disciples of Vallabhācārya. Complenenting the text is the Do Sau Bāvan Vaiṣṇavan kī Vārtā by the same authors detailing the lives of 252 disciples of Viṭṭhalanātha. Gokulnāth is attributed to be the original collector of these accounts but they were likely not written down but rather collections of his discourses. His grandnephew Harirāy is attributed to be the final editor of the two texts. The Caurāsī Vaiṣṇavan kī Vārtā exists in two recensions, one without commentary and one with commentary written by Harirāy. The recension with commentary is called the Tīn Janma kī Līlā version and generally contains more content than the recension without commentary. Harirāy is also the author of the Braj Bhasha text Śrī Nāthajī Prākaṭya kī Vārtā which recounts the appearance and discovery of Śrīnāthajī on Govardhan hill.[23][24]

Practices

Brahmsambandha and Initiation

The formal initiation into the Pushtimarg is through the administration of the Brahmasambandha mantra. The absolute and exclusive rights to grant this mantra, in order to remove the doṣas (faults) of a jīva (soul) lie only with the direct male descendants of Vallabhācārya. According to Vallabha, he received the Brahmasambandha mantra from Kr̥ṣṇa one night in Gokula. The next morning Vallabha administered the mantra to Damodaradāsa Harasānī, who would become the first member of the sampradaya.[23][25]

In Vallabhācārya's time, an (adult) to-be devotee would ask Vallabha to admit him, and if Vallabha was willing to take the potential devotee, he would ask him to bathe and return. Vallabha would then administer the mantra, asking the devotee to use Kr̥ṣṇa's name and to devotee everything he had to Kr̥ṣṇa, after which Vallabha would begin the spiritual education on doctrines and texts.[23][25]

In modern times the majority of members of the sect are born into Pushtimarg families, with the administering of the mantra being split in two ceremonies. The first when the children are about five years old, is when the first part of the mantra: "śrī kr̥ṣṇaḥ śaraṇam mama" and a tulasī necklace is given. When the boys turn twelve or before girl's marriage, a day-long fast occurs. The devotee to be then is asked to devote his or her mind, body, wealth, wife, household, senses, and everything else to Kr̥ṣṇa, after which he or she is considered a proper member of the sampradaya. The mantra and initiation is always and may only be performed by the direct male descendants of Vallabha.[25][23]

Houses and Svarūpas in the Puṣtimārga

Shrinathji of Nathdwara

Viṭṭhalanātha had seven sons among whom he distributed nine major svarūpas of Kr̥ṣṇa that were worshipped by the Puṣṭimārga. Each son founded a lineage that served as leaders of the sampradays. Several forms/icons of Krishna are worshiped in the sect. Here are the sons of Viṭṭhalanātha, their svarūpas and where they currently reside.[26]

  1. Giridhara, whose descendants hold Śrī Nāthajī (Nāthadvāra, Rajasthan), Śrī Navanītapriyajī (Nāthadvāra, Rajasthan), and Śrī Mathureśajī, (Jatipurā, Uttar Pradesh)
  2. Govindarāya, whose descendants hold Śrī Viṭṭhalanāthajī (Nāthadvāra, Rajasthan)
  3. Bālakr̥ṣṇa, who descendants hold Śrī Dvārakānāthajī (Kāṁkarolī, Rajasthan)
  4. Gokulanātha, whose descendants hold Śrī Gokulanāthajī (Gokula, Uttar Pradesh)
  5. Raghunātha, whose descendants hold Śrī Gokulacandramājī (Kāmabana, Rajasthan)
  6. Yadunātha, whose descendants hold Śrī Bālakr̥ṣṇajī (Sūrata, Gujarat) and Śrī Mukundarāyajī (Vārāṇasī, Uttar Pradesh)[note 1]
  7. Ghanaśyāma, whose descendants hold Śrī Madanamohanajī (Kāmabana, Rajasthan)
  8. Tulasīdāsa aka Lālajī, whose descendants hold Śrī Gopināthajī (Br̥ndābana, Uttar Pradesh, until 1947 at Ḍerāgāzīkhāṁ, Sindh)[note 2]

Sevā

19th century photograph of a group of Vallabhacharya maharajas

The daily sevā and darśana periods are meant to portray a day in the life of Kr̥ṣṇa Gopāla, or Kr̥ṣṇa as Cow-protector. In the Pushtimarg, sevā is the unselfish worship of a svarūpa, under the doctrine that the svarūpa is senient and appreciates refined food, clothing, and the arts. The themes of the sevā are based on the līlās ("pastimes" or "play") of Kr̥ṣṇa as depicted in the Bhāgavata Purāṇa. Based on the līlā, appropriate pure and high quality food and clothing are offered to the svarūpa. The svarūpa is entertained by singers and poets, with paintings called pichvaīs being placed in the background to enhance the bhāva ("emotion") of the sevā. [23]

Through sevā, members of the sampradāya are meant to experience bhāva in order to understand the rasa ("essence") of Kr̥ṣṇa's līlās, through which a devotee experiences the unselfish love for Kr̥ṣṇa. Sevā occurs privately at the home, but also an important aspect is communal sevā in a havelī.[23]

Daily Darśanas

  1. Maṅgalā, the awakening of the svarūpa in the morning and serving of light breakfast
  2. Śr̥ṅgāra, the adornment of apprioriate attire for the day
  3. Gvāla, the grazing of cows in pasture
  4. Rājabhōga, the main meal of the day, with the svarūpa being put to sleep afterwards
  5. Utthāpan, the awakening from the afternoon map
  6. Bhoga, the light afternoon dinner
  7. Sandhyārati, the evening worship with lighted lamps
  8. Śayana, the putting to sleep of the svarūpa and closing of the havelī

Pilgrimage

Birthplace of Vallabhacharya, Prakatya Baithak, Champaran

Baithak , literally "seat", is the site considered sacred by the followers of the Pushtimarg for performing devotional rituals. These sites are spread across India and are chiefly concentrated in Braj region in Uttar Pradesh and in western state of Gujarat. Total 142 Baithaks are considered sacred; 84 of Vallabhacharya, 28 of his son Viththalanath Gusainji and 30 of his seven grandsons. They mark public events in their lives.[27]

Festivals

Gouache painting on paper from Nathdwara representing the autumn Annakuta Festival. This annual festival is observed by donating a mountain of food, usually rice, to the temple to symbolise the moment Krishna lifted Mount Govardhan to protect his villagers. In Nathdwara the food is then given to the Bhils, the tribal peoples living in Mewar. The left arm of the god Srinathji, a form of Krishna, is raised and the murti (idol) is positioned in front of a picchvai decorated with a stylised floral pattern. Two priests attend the god, positioned on either side of the offering.

In the Puṣṭimārga, several festivals are celebrated including Holī, Kr̥ṣṇa Janmāṣṭamī, Nāgapañcamī, and Annakūṭa. On the festival days the sevā is designed to match with the bhāva of the holiday.[23]

Music

Music plays a key role in sevā in the form of kīrtans. The aṣṭachāp, or group of eight poets who composed Braj Bhasha devotional poetry and kīrtans are revered in the sect.[23]

Notes

  1. ↑ There is a succession dispute among the descendants of Yadunātha over the primacy of each svarūpa.
  2. ↑ Tulasīdāsa was an adopted son of Viṭṭhalanātha, and the svarūpa in his descendants' possession is of less significance than the other svarūpas.

References

  1. 1 2 3 Vallabhacharya, Encyclopaedia Britannica, Matt Stefon and Wendy Doniger (2015)
  2. 1 2 Kim, Hanna H. (2016), "In service of God and Geography: Tracing Five Centuries of the Vallabhacharya Sampradaya. Book review: Seeing Krishna in America: The Hindu Bhakti Tradition of Vallabhacharya in India and its Movement to the West, by E. Allen Richardson", Anthropology Faculty Publications 29, Adelphi University
  3. ↑ E. Allen Richardson (2014). Seeing Krishna in America: The Hindu Bhakti Tradition of Vallabhacharya in India and Its Movement to the West. McFarland. pp. 5–6. ISBN 978-1-4766-1596-7.
  4. ↑ Bangha, Imre (2006). "Courtly and Religious communities as Centres of Literary Activity in Eighteenth-Century India" (PDF). Indologia Orient: 12.
  5. ↑ Vemsani, Lavanya (2016-06-13). Krishna in History, Thought, and Culture: An Encyclopedia of the Hindu Lord of Many Names: An Encyclopedia of the Hindu Lord of Many Names. ABC-CLIO. pp. 222–223. ISBN 978-1-61069-211-3.
  6. ↑ E. Allen Richardson (2014). Seeing Krishna in America: The Hindu Bhakti Tradition of Vallabhacharya in India and Its Movement to the West. McFarland. pp. 12–21. ISBN 978-1-4766-1596-7.
  7. 1 2 Edwin F. Bryant (2007). Krishna: A Sourcebook. Oxford University Press. pp. 477–484. ISBN 978-0-19-972431-4.
  8. ↑ E. Allen Richardson (2014). Seeing Krishna in America: The Hindu Bhakti Tradition of Vallabhacharya in India and Its Movement to the West. McFarland. pp. 20–23, 189–195. ISBN 978-1-4766-1596-7.
  9. 1 2 3 Lochtefeld, James G (2002). The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: N-Z. Rosen Publishing. pp. 539-540. ISBN 978-0823931804.
  10. ↑ Richard Keith Barz (1976). The Bhakti Sect of Vallabhācārya. Thomson Press. pp. 1–5. ISBN 978-8-1215-05765.
  11. ↑ Harirāya (1972). 41 [i.e. Ikatālīsa] baṛe śikshāpatra: mūḷa śloka, ślokārtha, evaṃ vyākhyā sahita (in Hindi). Śrī Vaishṇava Mitra Maṇḍala. p. 297.
  12. 1 2 3 Jindel, Rajendra (1976). Culture of a Sacred Town: A Sociological Study of Nathdwara. Popular Prakashan. pp. 21–22, 34, 37. ISBN 978-8-17154-0402.
  13. ↑ Wendy Doniger (1999). Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World Religions. Merriam-Webster. p. 781. ISBN 978-0-87779-044-0.
  14. 1 2 3 4 5 Constance Jones; James D. Ryan (2006). Encyclopedia of Hinduism. Infobase. pp. 475–477. ISBN 978-0-8160-7564-5.
  15. ↑ E. Allen Richardson (2014). Seeing Krishna in America: The Hindu Bhakti Tradition of Vallabhacharya in India and Its Movement to the West. McFarland. p. 41. ISBN 978-1-4766-1596-7.
  16. ↑ Richard Keith Barz (1976). The Bhakti Sect of Vallabhācārya. Thomson Press. pp. 54–55. ISBN 978-8-1215-05765.
  17. ↑ Richard Keith Barz (1976). The Bhakti Sect of Vallabhācāryaji. Thomson Press. pp. 42–43. ISBN 978-8-1215-05765.
  18. ↑ E. Allen Richardson (2014). Seeing Krishna in America: The Hindu Bhakti Tradition of Vallabhacharyaji in India and Its Movement to the West. McFarland. ISBN 978-1-4766-1596-7.
  19. ↑ Saha, Shandip (2004). "Tracing the History of the Puṣṭi Mārga (1493-1670)". Creating a Community of Grace: A History of the Puṣṭi Mārga in Northern and Western India (1493-1905) (Thesis). University of Ottawa. p. 98-106.
  20. 1 2 Saha 2004, p. 98-106.
  21. ↑ Bhatt, Govindlal Hargovind (2001) [1953]. "The School of Vallabha". In Bhattacharya, Haridas (ed.). The Cultural Heritage of India: Volume III - The Philosophies. Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Calcutta. p. 348.
  22. ↑ Barz, Richard (2018). "Vallabha". In Jacobsen, Knut A.; Basu, Helene; Malinar, Angelika; Narayanan, Vasudha (eds.). Brill’s Encyclopedia of Hinduism Online. Brill.
  23. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Barz 2018.
  24. ↑ Barz, R.K. (1994). "The Caurāsī Vaiṣṇavan kī Vārtā and the Hagiography of the Puṣṭimārg". In Callewaert, Winand M.; Snell, Rupert (eds.). According to Tradition: Hagiographical Writing in India. Harrassowitz Verlag.
  25. 1 2 3 Barz 1992, p. 17-20.
  26. ↑ Barz, Richard (1992) [First edition 1976]. The Bhakti Sect of Vallabhācārya (3rd ed.). Munshiram Manoharlal. pp. 54–55.
  27. ↑ E. Allen Richardson (8 August 2014). Seeing Krishna in America: The Hindu Bhakti Tradition of Vallabhacharya in India and Its Movement to the West. McFarland. pp. 31–33. ISBN 978-1-4766-1596-7. Archived from the original on 24 August 2017.

Further reading

  • E. Allen Richardson. Seeing Krishna in America: The Hindu Bhakti Tradition of Vallabhacharya in India and Its Movement to the West. Jefferson: McFarland, 2014. 240 pp. ISBN 978-0-7864-5973-5.
  • The Path of Grace: Social Organization and Temple Worship in a Vaishnava Sect. By Peter Bennett. Delhi: Hindustan Publishing Corporation, 1993. xi, 230 pp.
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