未發現元素列表

未發現元素是一些在元素周期表內,未被列出的元素。目前所有已被發現的人造元素,在未發現之前也都可被稱之為未發現元素,基於目前化學理論漸趨完備,我們可以依此對未發現元素作一些基本性質上的推論。由於理論推測最大的原子質子數不得超過210,故下表所列之預測元素就僅至第九週期;而截至2022年為止,最新發現之元素為(Tennessine, Ts),并经IUPAC正式承認,至此所有第七週期元素已经合成成功,下表不予以保留。

通常科學家用實驗室的所在地或名稱來命名新發現的元素,國際純粹與應用化學聯合會(IUPAC)亦會給予已發現之元素名稱正式的認可。但IUPAC為統一起見,對於所有未經核定但已發現或被預測的元素名稱一律依照IUPAC之命名法則制定暫定名稱,使用拉丁文數字頭以該元素之原子序來命名,如Biunseptium(Bus)便是由bi(二)- un(一)- sept(七)- ium(元素)四個字根組合而成,表示「元素217號」。詳細的法則請見IUPAC元素系統命名法。以下所列即為未發現元素的IUPAC暫定名稱。

未發現元素在週期表中的位置

目前實驗合成原子序最大的元素可能是第七週期的最後一個元素118Og,而若發現了原子序数更大的元素則將被置於第八週期。根據格倫·西奧多·西博格於1969年提出的擴展元素週期表[1],在第八週期以後的週期中,將會有g區元素的出現,即有部份的元素會存在有g軌域電子,然而第八週期以後的元素都尚未能被合成或發現,所以此理論迄今未能被驗證。

我們可以預測下表的g區元素可能位於f區元素的左方,下表先依主流予以採用︰

擴展元素周期表
(超重元素不一定依下表的次序排列)
族未定
週期未定 0
Nu

0號元素

1 18
1 1
H
2 13 14 15 16 17 2
He
2 3
Li
4
Be
5
B
6
C
7
N
8
O
9
F
10
Ne
3 11
Na
12
Mg
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Al
14
Si
15
P
16
S
17
Cl
18
Ar
4 19
K
20
Ca
21
Sc
22
Ti
23
V
24
Cr
25
Mn
26
Fe
27
Co
28
Ni
29
Cu
30
Zn
31
Ga
32
Ge
33
As
34
Se
35
Br
36
Kr
5 37
Rb
38
Sr
39
Y
40
Zr
41
Nb
42
Mo
43
Tc
44
Ru
45
Rh
46
Pd
47
Ag
48
Cd
49
In
50
Sn
51
Sb
52
Te
53
I
54
Xe
6 55
Cs
56
Ba
57
La
58
Ce
59
Pr
60
Nd
61
Pm
62
Sm
63
Eu
64
Gd
65
Tb
66
Dy
67
Ho
68
Er
69
Tm
70
Yb
71
Lu
72
Hf
73
Ta
74
W
75
Re
76
Os
77
Ir
78
Pt
79
Au
80
Hg
81
Tl
82
Pb
83
Bi
84
Po
85
At
86
Rn
7 87
Fr
88
Ra
89
Ac
90
Th
91
Pa
92
U
93
Np
94
Pu
95
Am
96
Cm
97
Bk
98
Cf
99
Es
100
Fm
101
Md
102
No
103
Lr
104
Rf
105
Db
106
Sg
107
Bh
108
Hs
109
Mt
110
Ds
111
Rg
112
Cn
113
Nh
114
Fl
115
Mc
116
Lv
117
Ts
118
Og
8 119
Uue
120
Ubn
g區
元素
141
Uqu
142
Uqb
143
Uqt
144
Uqq
145
Uqp
146
Uqh
147
Uqs
148
Uqo
149
Uqe
150
Upn
151
Upu
152
Upb
153
Upt
154
Upq
155
Upp
156
Uph
157
Ups
158
Upo
159
Upe
160
Uhn
161
Uhu
162
Uhb
163
Uht
164
Uhq
9 165
Uhp
166
Uhh
167
Uhs
168
Uho
169
Uhe
170
Usn
171
Usu
172
Usb
8 121
Ubu
122
Ubb
123
Ubt
124
Ubq
125
Ubp
126
Ubh
127
Ubs
128
Ubo
129
Ube
130
Utn
131
Utu
132
Utb
133
Utt
134
Utq
135
Utp
136
Uth
137
Uts
138
Uto
139
Ute
140
Uqn
族未定
週期未定 分區未定 173
Ust
174
Usq
175
Usp
176
Ush
177
Uss
...


  無電子
  超臨界原子[2]

(未發現元素以較淺顔色顯示)

總覽

第8周期

s區塊 p區塊 d區塊 ds區塊 f區塊 g區塊
原子序数元素符號IUPAC命名電子組態電子殼層備註
119UueUnunenniums1[Uuo]8s12, 8, 18, 32, 32, 18, 8, 1推測電負度小於0.7。
120UbnUnbiniliums2[Og]8s22, 8, 18, 32, 32, 18, 8, 2304Ubn之中子數為幻數,有人推測其半衰期可能較長。
121UbuUnbiuniumg1[Og]8s28p1
1/2
2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 18, 8, 3第一個g區元素
122UbbUnbibiumg2[Og]7d18s28p1
1/2
2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 18, 9, 3
123UbtUnbitriumg3[Og]6f17d18s28p1
1/2
2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 19, 9, 3
124UbqUnbiquadiumg4[Og]6f38s28p1
1/2
2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 21, 8, 3
125UbpUnbipentiumg5[Og]5g16f38s28p1
1/2
2, 8, 18, 32, 33, 21, 8, 3
126UbhUnbihexiumg6[Og]5g26f27d18s28p1
1/2
2, 8, 18, 32, 34, 20, 9, 3310Ubh同時擁有中子數184、質子數126兩個幻數,推測可能是穩定元素島中半衰期最長的一個。
127UbsUnbiseptiumg7[Og]5g36f28s28p2
1/2
2, 8, 18, 32, 35, 20, 8, 4
128UboUnbioctiumg8[Og]5g46f28s28p2
1/2
2, 8, 18, 32, 36, 20, 8, 4
129UbeUnbienniumg9[Og]5g56f28s28p2
1/2
2, 8, 18, 32, 37, 20, 8, 4
130UtnUntriniliumg10[Og]5g66f28s28p2
1/2
2, 8, 18, 32, 38, 20, 8, 4
131UtuUntriuniumg11[Og]5g76f28s28p2
1/2
2, 8, 18, 32, 39, 20, 8, 4
132UtbUntribiumg12[Og]5g86f28s28p2
1/2
2, 8, 18, 32, 40, 20, 8, 4
133UttUntritriumg13[Og]5g86f38s28p2
1/2
2, 8, 18, 32, 40, 21, 8, 4
134UtqUntriquadiumg14[Og]5g86f48s28p2
1/2
2, 8, 18, 32, 40, 22, 8, 4
135UtpUntripentiumg15[Og]5g96f48s28p2
1/2
2, 8, 18, 32, 41, 22, 8, 4
136UthUntrihexiumg16[Og]5g116f37d18s28p2
1/2
2, 8, 18, 32, 42, 22, 8, 4
137UtsUntriseptiumg17[Og]5g126f37d18s28p2
1/2
2, 8, 18, 32, 43, 21, 9, 4波耳原子模型中,原子序超過137的原子在1s軌域的電子速度將超過光速[3];且根據狄拉克方程式,原子基態時的能量將成為虛數,為此費曼指出元素137可能是最後的一個元素,因此有人在非正式場合亦稱此元素為Feynmanium (Fy)[4]
138UtoUntrioctiumg18[Og]5g126f37d18s28p2
1/2
2, 8, 18, 32, 44, 21, 9, 4由於在實際情況中須考慮到原子核電荷分布的極限,因此在更精確的計算中,非離子態元素原子序可能達173。
139UteUntrienniump1[Og]5g136f27d28s28p2
1/2
2, 8, 18, 32, 45, 20, 10, 4
140UqnUnquadniliump2[Og]5g146f37d18s28p2
1/2
2, 8, 18, 32, 46, 21, 9, 4
141UquUnquaduniumf1[Og]5g156f27d28s28p2
1/2
2, 8, 18, 32, 47, 20, 10, 4
142UqbUnquadbiumf2[Og]5g166f27d28s28p2
1/2
2, 8, 18, 32, 48, 20, 10, 4
143UqtUnquadtriumf3[Og]5g176f27d28s28p2
1/2
2, 8, 18, 32, 49, 20, 10, 4
144UqqUnquadquadiumf4[Og]5g186f17d38s28p2
1/2
2, 8, 18, 32, 50, 19, 11, 4
145UqpUnquadpentiumf5[Og]5g186f37d28s28p2
1/2
2, 8, 18, 32, 50, 21, 10, 4
146UqhUnquadhexiumf6[Og]5g186f47d28s28p2
1/2
2, 8, 18, 32, 50, 22, 10, 4
147UqsUnquadseptiumf7[Og]5g186f57d28s28p2
1/2
2, 8, 18, 32, 50, 23, 10, 4
148UqoUnquadoctiumf8[Og]5g186f67d28s28p2
1/2
2, 8, 18, 32, 50, 24, 10, 4
149UqeUnquadenniumf9[Og]5g186f67d38s28p2
1/2
2, 8, 18, 32, 50, 24, 11, 4
150UpnUnpentniliumf10[Og]5g186f67d48s28p2
1/2
2, 8, 18, 32, 50, 24, 12, 6
151UpuUnpentuniumf11[Og]5g186f87d38s28p2
1/2
2, 8, 18, 32, 50, 26, 11, 4
152UpbUnpentbiumf12[Og]5g186f97d38s28p2
1/2
2, 8, 18, 32, 50, 27, 11, 4
153UptUnpenttriumf13[Og]5g186f117d28s28p2
1/2
2, 8, 18, 32, 50, 29, 10, 4
154UpqUnpentquadiumf14[Og]5g186f127d28s28p2
1/2
2, 8, 18, 32, 50, 30, 10, 4
155UppUnpentpentiumd1[Og]5g186f137d28s28p2
1/2
2, 8, 18, 32, 50, 31, 10, 4
156UphUnpenthexiumd2[Og]5g186f147d28s28p2
1/2
2, 8, 18, 32, 50, 32, 10, 4
157UpsUnpentseptiumd3[Og]5g186f147d38s28p2
1/2
2, 8, 18, 32, 50, 32, 11, 4
158UpoUnpentoctiumd4[Og]5g186f147d48s28p2
1/2
2, 8, 18, 32, 50, 32, 12, 4
159UpeUnpentenniumd5[Og]5g186f147d48s28p2
1/2
9s1
2, 8, 18, 32, 50, 32, 12, 4, 1
160UhnUnhexniliumd6[Og]5g186f147d58s28p2
1/2
9s1
2, 8, 18, 32, 50, 32, 13, 4, 1
161UhuUnhexuniumd7[Og]5g186f147d68s28p2
1/2
9s1
2, 8, 18, 32, 50, 32, 14, 4, 1
162UhbUnhexbiumd8[Og]5g186f147d88s28p2
1/2
2, 8, 18, 32, 50, 32, 16, 4
163UhtUnhextriumd9[Og]5g186f147d98s28p2
1/2
2, 8, 18, 32, 50, 32, 17, 4
164UhqUnhexquadiumd10[Og]5g186f147d108s28p2
1/2
2, 8, 18, 32, 50, 32, 18, 4

第9周期

電子 s區塊 p區塊 d區塊 ds區塊 f區塊 g區塊 h區塊 離子態 可能不存在
原子序元素符號IUPAC命名電子組態電子殼層備註
165UhpUnhexpentiums1[Uhq]9s12, 8, 18, 32, 50, 32, 18, 4, 1電負度確定小於0.7。
166UhhUnhexhexiums2[Uhq]9s22, 8, 18, 32, 50, 32, 18, 4, 2
167UhsUnhexseptiump1[Uhq]9s29p1
1/2
2, 8, 18, 32, 50, 32, 18, 4, 3
168UhoUnhexoctiump2[Uhq]9s29p2
1/2
2, 8, 18, 32, 50, 32, 18, 4, 4
169UheUnhexenniump3[Uhq]8p1
3/2
9s29p2
1/2
2, 8, 18, 32, 50, 32, 18, 5, 4
170UsnUnseptniliump4[Uhq]8p2
3/2
9s29p2
1/2
2, 8, 18, 32, 50, 32, 18, 6, 4
171UsuUnseptuniump5[Uhq]8p3
3/2
9s29p2
1/2
2, 8, 18, 32, 50, 32, 18, 7, 4
172UsbUnseptbiump6[Uhq]8p4
3/2
9s29p2
1/2
2, 8, 18, 32, 50, 32, 18, 8, 4

周期未定

多篇論文中對於其周期皆有不同表述之元素者,或者無論文或研究提到其周期者,列於此。

電子 s區塊 p區塊 d區塊 ds區塊 f區塊 g區塊 h區塊 超臨界原子[2] 可能不存在
原子序数元素符號IUPAC命名電子組態電子殼層備註
0Nu/Nt/nNeutronium 無電子零號元素
173UstUnsepttrium未知[Usb]6g12, 8, 18, 32, 50, 33, 18, 8, 4
184UoqUnoctquadium未知[Usb] 6g5 7f4 8d3[5][6]
245BqpBiquadpentium未知理論計算表明,當Z=245時,2s軌域也將崩潰[7]

詳細列表

化學元素元素分區預測电子排布[8][5][9][10]
119UueUnunenniums-block[Og] 8s1
120UbnUnbiniliums-block[Og] 8s2
121UbuUnbiuniumg-block[Og] 8s2 8p1
1/2
[11]
122UbbUnbibiumg-block[Og] 8s2 8p2
1/2
[11]
[Og] 7d1 8s2 8p1
1/2
123UbtUnbitriumg-block[Og] 6f1 8s2 8p2
1/2
[12]
[Og] 6f1 7d1 8s2 8p1
1/2
[13][11]
[Og] 6f2 8s2 8p1
1/2

[Og] 8s2 8p2
1/2
8p1
3/2
[13]
124UbqUnbiquadiumg-block[Og] 6f2 8s2 8p2
1/2
[11][12]
[Og] 6f3 8s2 8p1
1/2
125UbpUnbipentiumg-block[Og] 6f4 8s2 8p1
1/2
[11]
[Og] 5g1 6f2 8s2 8p2
1/2
[12]
[Og] 5g1 6f3 8s2 8p1
1/2

[Og] 8s2 0.81(5g1 6f2 8p2
1/2
) + 0.17(5g1 6f1 7d2 8p1
1/2
) + 0.02(6f3 7d1 8p1
1/2
)
126UbhUnbihexiumg-block[Og] 5g1 6f4 8s2 8p1
1/2
[11]
[Og] 5g2 6f2 8s2 8p2
1/2
[12]
[Og] 5g2 6f3 8s2 8p1
1/2

[Og] 8s2 0.998(5g2 6f3 8p1
1/2
) + 0.002(5g2 6f2 8p2
1/2
)
127UbsUnbiseptiumg-block[Og] 5g2 6f3 8s2 8p2
1/2
[11]
[Og] 5g3 6f2 8s2 8p2
1/2
[12]
[Og] 8s2 0.88(5g3 6f2 8p2
1/2
) + 0.12(5g3 6f1 7d2 8p1
1/2
)
128UboUnbioctiumg-block[Og] 5g3 6f3 8s2 8p2
1/2
[11]
[Og] 5g4 6f2 8s2 8p2
1/2
[12]
[Og] 8s2 0.88(5g4 6f2 8p2
1/2
) + 0.12(5g4 6f1 7d2 8p1
1/2
)
129UbeUnbienniumg-block[Og] 5g4 6f3 7d1 8s2 8p1
1/2

[Og] 5g4 6f3 8s2 8p2
1/2
[11][12]
[Og] 5g5 6f2 8s2 8p2
1/2

[Og] 5g4 6f3 7d1 8s2 8p1
1/2
130UtnUntriniliumg-block[Og] 5g5 6f3 7d1 8s2 8p1
1/2

[Og] 5g5 6f3 8s2 8p2
1/2
[11][12]
[Og] 5g6 6f2 8s2 8p2
1/2

[Og] 5g5 6f3 7d1 8s2 8p1
1/2
131UtuUntriuniumg-block[Og] 5g6 6f3 8s2 8p2
1/2
[11][12]
[Og] 5g7 6f2 8s2 8p2
1/2

[Og] 8s2 0.86(5g6 6f3 8p2
1/2
) + 0.14(5g6 6f2 7d2 8p1
1/2
)
132UtbUntribiumg-block[Og] 5g7 6f3 8s2 8p2
1/2
[12]
[Og] 5g8 6f2 8s2 8p2
1/2
133UttUntritriumg-block[Og] 5g8 6f3 8s2 8p2
1/2
[12]
134UtqUntriquadiumg-block[Og] 5g8 6f4 8s2 8p2
1/2
[12]
135UtpUntripentiumg-block[Og] 5g9 6f4 8s2 8p2
1/2
[12]
136UthUntrihexiumg-block[Og] 5g10 6f4 8s2 8p2
1/2
[12]
137UtsUntriseptiumg-block[Og] 5g11 6f4 8s2 8p2
1/2
[12]
138UtoUntrioctiumg-block[Og] 5g12 6f4 8s2 8p2
1/2
[12]
[Og] 5g12 6f3 7d1 8s2 8p2
1/2
139UteUntrienniumg-block[Og] 5g13 6f3 7d1 8s2 8p2
1/2
[12]
[Og] 5g13 6f2 7d2 8s2 8p2
1/2
140UqnUnquadniliumg-block[Og] 5g14 6f3 7d1 8s2 8p2
1/2
[12]
[Og] 5g15 6f1 8s2 8p2
1/2
8p2
3/2
141UquUnquaduniumg-block[Og] 5g15 6f2 7d2 8s2 8p2
1/2
[12]
142UqbUnquadbiumg-block[Og] 5g16 6f2 7d2 8s2 8p2
1/2
[12]
143UqtUnquadtriumf-block[Og] 5g17 6f2 7d2 8s2 8p2
1/2
[12]
144UqqUnquadquadiumf-block[Og] 5g18 6f2 7d2 8s2 8p2
1/2
[12]
[Og] 5g18 6f1 7d3 8s2 8p2
1/2

[Og] 5g17 6f2 7d3 8s2 8p2
1/2

[Og] 8s2 0.95(5g17 6f2 7d3 8p2
1/2
) + 0.05(5g17 6f4 7d1 8p2
1/2
)
145UqpUnquadpentiumf-block[Og] 5g18 6f3 7d2 8s2 8p2
1/2
[12]
146UqhUnquadhexiumf-block[Og] 5g18 6f4 7d2 8s2 8p2
1/2
[12]
147UqsUnquadseptiumf-block[Og] 5g18 6f5 7d2 8s2 8p2
1/2
[12]
148UqoUnquadoctiumf-block[Og] 5g18 6f6 7d2 8s2 8p2
1/2
[12]
149UqeUnquadenniumf-block[Og] 5g18 6f6 7d3 8s2 8p2
1/2
[12]
150UpnUnpentniliumf-block[Og] 5g18 6f6 7d4 8s2 8p2
1/2

[Og] 5g18 6f7 7d3 8s2 8p2
1/2
[12]
151UpuUnpentuniumf-block[Og] 5g18 6f8 7d3 8s2 8p2
1/2
[12]
152UpbUnpentbiumf-block[Og] 5g18 6f9 7d3 8s2 8p2
1/2
[12]
153UptUnpenttriumf-block[Og] 5g18 6f10 7d3 8s2 8p2
1/2

[Og] 5g18 6f11 7d2 8s2 8p2
1/2
[12]
154UpqUnpentquadiumf-block[Og] 5g18 6f11 7d3 8s2 8p2
1/2

[Og] 5g18 6f12 7d2 8s2 8p2
1/2
[12]
155UppUnpentpentiumf-block[Og] 5g18 6f12 7d3 8s2 8p2
1/2

[Og] 5g18 6f13 7d2 8s2 8p2
1/2
[12]
156UphUnpenthexiumf-block[Og] 5g18 6f13 7d3 8s2 8p2
1/2

[Og] 5g18 6f14 7d2 8s2 8p2
1/2
[12]
157UpsUnpentseptiumd-block[Og] 5g18 6f14 7d3 8s2 8p2
1/2
[12]
158UpoUnpentoctiumd-block[Og] 5g18 6f14 7d4 8s2 8p2
1/2
[12]
159UpeUnpentenniumd-block[Og] 5g18 6f14 7d5 8s2 8p2
1/2

[Og] 5g18 6f14 7d4 8s2 8p2
1/2
9s1[12]
160UhnUnhexniliumd-block[Og] 5g18 6f14 7d6 8s2 8p2
1/2

[Og] 5g18 6f14 7d5 8s2 8p2
1/2
9s1[12]
161UhuUnhexuniumd-block[Og] 5g18 6f14 7d7 8s2 8p2
1/2

[Og] 5g18 6f14 7d6 8s2 8p2
1/2
9s1[12]
162UhbUnhexbiumd-block[Og] 5g18 6f14 7d8 8s2 8p2
1/2

[Og] 5g18 6f14 7d7 8s2 8p2
1/2
9s1[12]
163UhtUnhextriumd-block[Og] 5g18 6f14 7d9 8s2 8p2
1/2

[Og] 5g18 6f14 7d8 8s2 8p2
1/2
9s1[12]
164UhqUnhexquadiumd-block[Og] 5g18 6f14 7d10 8s2 8p2
1/2
[12]
165UhpUnhexpentiumd-block[Og] 5g18 6f14 7d10 8s2 8p2
1/2
9s1[12]
166UhhUnhexhexiumd-block[Og] 5g18 6f14 7d10 8s2 8p2
1/2
9s2[12]
167UhsUnhexseptiump-block[Og] 5g18 6f14 7d10 8s2 8p2
1/2
9s2 9p1
1/2

[Og] 5g18 6f14 7d10 8s2 8p2
1/2
8p1
3/2
9s2[12]
168UhoUnhexoctiump-block[Og] 5g18 6f14 7d10 8s2 8p2
1/2
9s2 9p2
1/2

[Og] 5g18 6f14 7d10 8s2 8p2
1/2
8p2
3/2
9s2[12]
169UheUnhexenniump-block[Og] 5g18 6f14 7d10 8s2 8p2
1/2
8p1
3/2
9s2 9p2
1/2

[Og] 5g18 6f14 7d10 8s2 8p2
1/2
8p3
3/2
9s2[12]
170UsnUnseptniliump-block[Og] 5g18 6f14 7d10 8s2 8p2
1/2
8p2
3/2
9s2 9p2
1/2

[Og] 5g18 6f14 7d10 8s2 8p2
1/2
8p4
3/2
9s2[12]
171UsuUnseptuniump-block[Og] 5g18 6f14 7d10 8s2 8p2
1/2
8p3
3/2
9s2 9p2
1/2

[Og] 5g18 6f14 7d10 8s2 8p2
1/2
8p4
3/2
9s2 9p1
1/2
[12]
172UsbUnseptbiump-block[Og] 5g18 6f14 7d10 8s2 8p2
1/2
8p4
3/2
9s2 9p2
1/2
[12]
173UstUnsepttrium ?[172] 6g1
[172] 9p1
3/2
...............
184UoqUnoctquadium ?[172] 6g5 7f4 8d3

廢棄的元素名稱

電子 s區塊 p區塊 d區塊 ds區塊 f區塊 g區塊 h區塊
原子序数元素符號IUPAC命名研究年分備註
43IlIlmenium7族元素1846年[14]鈮和鉭的混合物
43LcLucium7族元素1896年[15][16]含雜質的釔混合物
90IoIonium錒系元素1904年[17]釷-230
93AoAusonium錒系元素1934年[18]鋇、氪等元素的混合物
未知DiDidymium鑭系元素1841年[19]鐠和釹的混合物[20]
未知Nl未知1864年[21]雙電離氧O2+产生的禁线[22]
未知PePelopium未知1845年[23][24][25]鈮和鉭的混合物

參見

參考文獻

  1. . [2009-10-28]. (原始内容存档于2009-08-13).
  2. Marrus, Richard. . Springer Science & Business Media. 2012-12-06: 42-43 [2018-09-08]. ISBN 978-1-4613-0833-1. (原始内容存档于2021-04-28) (英语).
  3. Eisberg, Robert; Resnick, Robert; Brown, Judith. . Physics Today. 1986-03-XX, 39 (3): 110–111. ISSN 0031-9228. doi:10.1063/1.2814935 (英语).
  4. J. Eric Slone. . fotuva.org. [2017-07-17]. (原始内容存档于2017-07-24).
  5. Fricke, Burkhard. . 21. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg. 1975: 89–144. ISBN 978-3-540-07109-9. doi:10.1007/bfb0116498 (英语).
  6. Penneman, R.A.; Mann, J.B.; Jørgensen, C.K. . Chemical Physics Letters. 1971-02-XX, 8 (4): 321–326 [2021-04-25]. Bibcode:1971CPL.....8..321P. doi:10.1016/0009-2614(71)80054-4. (原始内容存档于2018-06-03) (英语).
  7. Reinhardt, Joachim; Greiner, Walter. . Greiner, Walter (编). . Cham: Springer International Publishing. 2015: 195–210. ISBN 978-3-319-10198-9. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-10199-6_19 (英语).
  8. Hoffman, Darleane C.; Lee, Diana M.; Pershina, Valeria. . Morss; Edelstein, Norman M.; Fuger, Jean (编). 3rd. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Springer Science+Business Media. 2006. ISBN 978-1-4020-3555-5.
  9. Fricke, Burkhard. (PDF). Recent Impact of Physics on Inorganic Chemistry. 1977, 19: 83–192 [25 February 2016]. Bibcode:1977ADNDT..19...83F. doi:10.1016/0092-640X(77)90010-9. (原始内容 (PDF)存档于2016-03-22).
  10. Nefedov, V.I.; Trzhaskovskaya, M.B.; Yarzhemskii, V.G. (PDF). Doklady Physical Chemistry. 2006, 408 (2): 149–151 [2022-04-20]. ISSN 0012-5016. S2CID 95738861. doi:10.1134/S0012501606060029. (原始内容 (PDF)存档于2016-10-13).
  11. Umemoto, Koichiro; Saito, Susumu. . Journal of the Physical Society of Japan. 1996, 65 (10): 3175–9 [31 January 2021]. Bibcode:1996JPSJ...65.3175U. doi:10.1143/JPSJ.65.3175. (原始内容存档于2021-03-06).
  12. . www.primefan.ru. [15 January 2022]. (原始内容存档于5 March 2016).
  13. van der Schoor, K. (PDF) (学位论文). Rijksuniversiteit Groningen. 2016 [2022-04-20]. (原始内容 (PDF)存档于2019-01-13).
  14. Hermann, R. . Journal für Praktische Chemie. 1847, 40 (1): 457–480. doi:10.1002/prac.184704001110 (英语).
  15. . Zeitschrift für anorganische Chemie. 1897, 15 (1): 456–476. ISSN 0863-1778. doi:10.1002/zaac.18970150164 (德语).
  16. H., J. L. . Science. 1896-11-27, 4 (100): 790–791. Bibcode:1896Sci.....4..790H. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 17734842. doi:10.1126/science.4.100.790-a (英语).
  17. Rayner-Canham, Marelene F.; Rayner-Canham, Geoffrey. . 化學遺產基金會. 1997: 152–155 [2019-02-24]. ISBN 978-0-941901-15-4. (原始内容存档于2019-12-08) (英语).
  18. Fermi, Prof. E. . Nature. 1934-06-XX, 133 (3372): 898–899 [2021-04-25]. Bibcode:1934Natur.133..898F. ISSN 0028-0836. doi:10.1038/133898a0. (原始内容存档于2021-10-17) (英语).
  19. Emsley, John. 需要免费注册. Oxford University Press. 2003: 341. ISBN 0-19-850340-7.
  20. Fontani, Marco; Costa, Mariagrazia; Orna, Mary Virginia. . Oxford University Press. 2015: 172–173 [2021-04-25]. ISBN 978-0-19-938334-4. (原始内容存档于2021-04-18).
  21. . Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. 1864-12-31, 154: 437–444 [2021-04-25]. Bibcode:1864RSPT..154..437H. ISSN 0261-0523. JSTOR 108876. doi:10.1098/rstl.1864.0013. (原始内容存档于2021-12-25) (英语).
  22. Bowen, I. S. . Nature. 1927-10-XX, 120 (3022): 473–473 [2021-04-25]. Bibcode:1927Natur.120..473B. ISSN 0028-0836. doi:10.1038/120473a0. (原始内容存档于2021-12-24) (英语).
  23. Rose, H. . The London, Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science. 1846-11-XX, 29 (195): 409–416. ISSN 1941-5966. doi:10.1080/14786444608645529 (英语).
  24. Rose, H. . The London, Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science. 1845-02-XX, 26 (171): 179–181. ISSN 1941-5966. doi:10.1080/14786444508562692 (英语).
  25. . Annalen der Chemie und Pharmacie. 1846, 60 (2): 206–208. doi:10.1002/jlac.18460600233 (德语).
This article is issued from Wikipedia. The text is licensed under Creative Commons - Attribution - Sharealike. Additional terms may apply for the media files.