Pre-history and medieval

There is evidence of early human activity in the Birmingham area dating back to around 8000 BC,^[37] with Stone Age artefacts suggesting seasonal settlements, overnight hunting parties and woodland activities such as tree felling.^[38] The many burnt mounds that can still be seen around the city indicate that modern humans first intensively settled and cultivated the area during the Bronze Age, when a substantial but short-lived influx of population occurred between 1700 BC and 1000 BC, possibly caused by conflict or immigration in the surrounding area.^[39] During the 1st-century Roman conquest of Britain, the forested country of the Birmingham Plateau formed a barrier to the advancing Roman legions,^[40] who built the large Metchley Fort in the area of modern-day Edgbaston in AD 48,^[41] and made it the focus of a network of Roman roads.^[42] Birmingham was then later established by the Beormingas around the 6th or 7th century as a small settlement in the then heavily forested Arden region in Mercia.

The development of Birmingham into a significant urban and commercial centre began in 1166, when the Lord of the Manor Peter de Bermingham obtained a charter to hold a market at his castle, and followed this with the creation of a planned market town and seigneurial borough within his demesne or manorial estate, around the site that became the Bull Ring.^[43] This established Birmingham as the primary commercial centre for the Birmingham Plateau at a time when the area's economy was expanding rapidly, with population growth nationally leading to the clearance, cultivation and settlement of previously marginal land.^[44] Within a century of the charter Birmingham had grown into a prosperous urban centre of merchants and craftsmen.^[45] By 1327 it was the third-largest town in Warwickshire,^[46] a position it would retain for the next 200 years.

Early modern

The principal governing institutions of medieval Birmingham – including the Guild of the Holy Cross and the lordship of the de Birmingham family – collapsed between 1536 and 1547,^[47] leaving the town with an unusually high degree of social and economic freedom and initiating a period of transition and growth.^[48] By 1700 Birmingham's population had increased fifteen-fold and the town was the fifth-largest in England and Wales.^[49]

The importance of the manufacture of iron goods to Birmingham's economy was recognised as early as 1538, and grew rapidly as the century progressed.^[50] Equally significant was the town's emerging role as a centre for the iron merchants who organised finance, supplied raw materials and traded and marketed the industry's products.^[51] By the 1600s Birmingham formed the commercial hub of a network of forges and furnaces stretching from South Wales to Cheshire^[52] and its merchants were selling finished manufactured goods as far afield as the West Indies.^[53] These trading links gave Birmingham's metalworkers access to much wider markets, allowing them to diversify away from lower-skilled trades producing basic goods for local sale, towards a broader range of specialist, higher-skilled and more lucrative activities.^[54]

The East Prospect of Birmingham (1732), engraving by William Westley

By the time of the English Civil War Birmingham's booming economy, its expanding population, and its resulting high levels of social mobility and cultural pluralism, had seen it develop new social structures very different from those of more established areas.^[55] Relationships were built around pragmatic commercial linkages rather than the rigid paternalism and deference of feudal society, and loyalties to the traditional hierarchies of the established church and aristocracy were weak.^[55] The town's reputation for political radicalism and its strongly Parliamentarian sympathies saw it attacked by Royalist forces in the Battle of Birmingham in 1643,^[56] and it developed into a centre of Puritanism in the 1630s^[55] and as a haven for Nonconformists from the 1660s.^[57]

The 18th century saw this tradition of free-thinking and collaboration blossom into the cultural phenomenon now known as the Midlands Enlightenment.^[58] The town developed into a notable centre of literary, musical, artistic and theatrical activity;^[59] and its leading citizens – particularly the members of the Lunar Society of Birmingham – became influential participants in the circulation of philosophical and scientific ideas among Europe's intellectual elite.^[60] The close relationship between Enlightenment Birmingham's leading thinkers and its major manufacturers^[61] – in men like Matthew Boulton and James Keir they were often in fact the same people^[62] – made it particularly important for the exchange of knowledge between pure science and the practical world of manufacturing and technology.^[63] This created a "chain reaction of innovation",^[64] forming a pivotal link between the earlier scientific revolution and the Industrial Revolution that would follow.^[65]

Industrial Revolution

Matthew Boulton, a prominent early industrialist

Birmingham's explosive industrial expansion started earlier than that of the textile-manufacturing towns of the North of England,^[66] and was driven by different factors. Instead of the economies of scale of a low-paid, unskilled workforce producing a single bulk commodity such as cotton or wool in large, mechanised units of production, Birmingham's industrial development was built on the adaptability and creativity of a highly paid workforce with a strong division of labour, practising a broad variety of skilled specialist trades and producing a constantly diversifying range of products, in a highly entrepreneurial economy of small, often self-owned workshops.^[67] This led to exceptional levels of inventiveness: between 1760 and 1850 – the core years of the Industrial Revolution – Birmingham residents registered over three times as many patents as those of any other British town or city.^[68]

The demand for capital to feed rapid economic expansion also saw Birmingham grow into a major financial centre with extensive international connections.^[69] Lloyds Bank was founded in the town in 1765,^[70] and Ketley's Building Society, the world's first building society, in 1775.^[71] By 1800 the West Midlands had more banking offices per head than any other region in Britain, including London.^[69]

The Soho Manufactory of 1765 – pioneer of the factory system and the industrial steam engine

Innovation in 18th-century Birmingham often took the form of incremental series of small-scale improvements to existing products or processes,^[72] but also included major developments that lay at the heart of the emergence of industrial society.^[19] In 1709 the Birmingham-trained Abraham Darby I moved to Coalbrookdale in Shropshire and built the first blast furnace to successfully smelt iron ore with coke, transforming the quality, volume and scale on which it was possible to produce cast iron.^[73] In 1732 Lewis Paul and John Wyatt invented roller spinning, the "one novel idea of the first importance" in the development of the mechanised cotton industry.^[74] In 1741 they opened the world's first cotton mill in Birmingham's Upper Priory.^[75] In 1746 John Roebuck invented the lead chamber process, enabling the large-scale manufacture of sulphuric acid,^[76] and in 1780 James Keir developed a process for the bulk manufacture of alkali,^[77] together marking the birth of the modern chemical industry.^[78] In 1765 Matthew Boulton opened the Soho Manufactory, pioneering the combination and mechanisation under one roof of previously separate manufacturing activities through a system known as "rational manufacture".^[79] As the largest manufacturing unit in Europe, this came to symbolise the emergence of the factory system.^[80]

Most significant, however, was the development in 1776 of the industrial steam engine by James Watt and Matthew Boulton.^[81] Freeing for the first time the manufacturing capacity of human society from the limited availability of hand, water and animal power, this was arguably the pivotal moment of the entire industrial revolution and a key factor in the worldwide increases in productivity over the following century.^[82]

Regency and Victorian

Thomas Attwood addressing a 200,000-strong meeting of the Birmingham Political Union during the Days of May 1832 – oil on canvas by Benjamin Haydon (c. 1832–1833)

Birmingham rose to national political prominence in the campaign for political reform in the early 19th century, with Thomas Attwood and the Birmingham Political Union bringing the country to the brink of civil war during the Days of May that preceded the passing of the Great Reform Act in 1832.^[83] The Union's meetings on Newhall Hill in 1831 and 1832 were the largest political assemblies Britain had ever seen.^[84] Lord Durham, who drafted the Act, wrote that "the country owed Reform to Birmingham, and its salvation from revolution".^[85] This reputation for having "shaken the fabric of privilege to its base" in 1832 led John Bright to make Birmingham the platform for his successful campaign for the Second Reform Act of 1867, which extended voting rights to the urban working class.^[86]

The original Charter of Incorporation, dated 31 October 1838, was received in Birmingham on 1 November, then read in the Town Hall on 5 November with elections for the first Birmingham Town Council being held on 26 December. Sixteen Aldermen and 48 Councillors were elected and the Borough was divided into 13 wards. William Scholefield became the first Mayor and William Redfern was appointed as Town Clerk. Birmingham Town Police were established the following year.

Birmingham's tradition of innovation continued into the 19th century. Birmingham was the terminus for both of the world's first two long-distance railway lines: the 82-mile (132 km) Grand Junction Railway of 1837 and the 112-mile (180 km) London and Birmingham Railway of 1838.^[87] Birmingham schoolteacher Rowland Hill invented the postage stamp and created the first modern universal postal system in 1839.^[88] Alexander Parkes invented the first human-made plastic in the Jewellery Quarter in 1855.^[89]

By the 1820s, the country's extensive canal system had been constructed, giving greater access to natural resources and fuel for industries. During the Victorian era, the population of Birmingham grew rapidly to well over half a million^[90] and Birmingham became the second largest population centre in England. Birmingham was granted city status in 1889 by Queen Victoria.^[91] Joseph Chamberlain, mayor of Birmingham and later an MP, and his son Neville Chamberlain, who was Lord Mayor of Birmingham and later the British Prime Minister, are two of the most well-known political figures who have lived in Birmingham. The city established its own university in 1900.^[92]

20th century and contemporary

Ruins of the Bull Ring, destroyed during the Birmingham Blitz, 1940

An aerial photograph of Birmingham in 1946

The city suffered heavy bomb damage during World War II's "Birmingham Blitz". The city was also the scene of two scientific discoveries that were to prove critical to the outcome of the war.^[93] Otto Frisch and Rudolf Peierls first described how a practical nuclear weapon could be constructed in the Frisch–Peierls memorandum of 1940,^[94] the same year that the cavity magnetron, the key component of radar and later of microwave ovens, was invented by John Randall and Henry Boot.^[95] Details of these two discoveries, together with an outline of the first jet engine invented by Frank Whittle in nearby Rugby, were taken to the United States by the Tizard Mission in September 1940, in a single black box later described by an official American historian as "the most valuable cargo ever brought to our shores".^[96]

The city was extensively redeveloped during the 1950s and 1960s.^[97][98] This included the construction of large tower block estates, such as Castle Vale. The Bull Ring was reconstructed and New Street station was redeveloped. In the decades following World War II, the ethnic makeup of Birmingham changed significantly, as it received waves of immigration from the Commonwealth of Nations and beyond.^[99] The city's population peaked in 1951 at 1,113,000 residents.^[90]

Aftermath of the bomb attack on the Mulberry Bush Pub during the pub bombings of 1974

21 people were killed and 182 were injured in a series of bomb attacks in 1974, thought to be carried out by the Provisional IRA. The bombings were the worst terror attacks in England up until the 2005 London bombings^[100] and consisted of bombs being planted in two pubs in central Birmingham. Six men were convicted, who became known later as the Birmingham Six and sentenced to life imprisonment, who were acquitted after 16 years by the Court of Appeal.^[101] The convictions are now considered one of the worst British miscarriages of justice in recent times. The true perpetrators of the attacks are yet to be arrested.^{[102][103][104]}

World leaders meet in Birmingham for the 1998 G8 Summit

Birmingham remained by far Britain's most prosperous provincial city as late as the 1970s,^[105] with household incomes exceeding even those of London and the South East,^[106] but its economic diversity and capacity for regeneration declined in the decades that followed World War II as Central Government sought to restrict the city's growth and disperse industry and population to the stagnating areas of Wales and Northern England.^[107] These measures hindered "the natural self-regeneration of businesses in Birmingham, leaving it top-heavy with the old and infirm",^[108] and the city became increasingly dependent on the motor industry. The recession of the early 1980s saw Birmingham's economy collapse, with unprecedented levels of unemployment and outbreaks of social unrest in inner-city districts.^[109]

Since the turn of the 21st century, many parts of Birmingham have been transformed, with the redevelopment of the Bullring Shopping Centre,^[110] the construction of the new Library of Birmingham (the largest public library in Europe) and the regeneration of old industrial areas such as Brindleyplace, The Mailbox and the International Convention Centre, as well as the rationalisation of the Inner Ring Road. In 1998 Birmingham hosted the 24th G8 summit. The city successfully hosted the 2022 Commonwealth Games.^[111][30]

On 5 September 2023 Birmingham city council issued a Section 114 notice to say that it could not meet its financial commitments. Effectively this meant the council was bankrupt. A major contributing factor being a £1.1b sum that has been paid out since 2010, for equal pay claims. there is still a bill for £760m, increasing by £14m a month. There is also problems with a new IT system that was projected to cost £19m but is now closer to £100m. In addition there is a projected £87m deficit for the financial year 23/24.^[112]

Geology

Birmingham is dominated by the Birmingham Fault, which runs diagonally through the city from the Lickey Hills in the south west, passing through Edgbaston and the Bull Ring, to Erdington and Sutton Coldfield in the north east.^[126] To the south and east of the fault the ground is largely softer Mercia Mudstone, interspersed with beds of Bunter pebbles and crossed by the valleys of the Rivers Tame, Rea and Cole and their tributaries.^[127] To the north and west of the fault, between 150 and 600 feet (46 and 183 metres) higher than the surrounding area and underlying much of the city centre, lies a long ridge of harder Keuper Sandstone.^[128][129] The bedrock underlying Birmingham was mostly laid down during the Permian and Triassic periods.^[126]

The area has evidence of glacial deposits, with prominent erratic boulders becoming a tourist attraction in the early 1900s.^{[130][131][132]}

Climate

Birmingham has a temperate maritime climate (Cfb according to the Köppen climate classification), like much of the British Isles, with average maximum temperatures in summer (July) being around 21.3 °C (70.3 °F); and in winter (January) around 6.7 °C (44.1 °F).^[133] Between 1971 and 2000 the warmest day of the year on average was 28.8 °C (83.8 °F)^[134] and the coldest night typically fell to −9.0 °C (15.8 °F).^[135] Some 11.2 days each year rose to a temperature of 25.1 °C (77.2 °F) or above^[136] and 51.6 nights reported an air frost.^[137] The highest recorded temperature recorded at the Edgbaston Campus was 37.4 °C (99.3 °F),^[138] whilst a temperature of 37.0 °C (98.6 °F) was recorded at Birmingham Airport on the city's eastern edge, both recorded on 19 July 2022.^[139]

Like most other large cities, Birmingham has a considerable urban heat island effect.^[140] During the coldest night recorded, 14 January 1982, the temperature fell to −20.8 °C (−5.4 °F) at Birmingham Airport, but just −14.3 °C (6.3 °F) at Edgbaston, near the city centre.^[141] Birmingham is a snowy city relative to other large UK conurbations, due to its inland location and comparatively high elevation.^[142] Between 1961 and 1990 Birmingham Airport averaged 13.0 days of snow lying annually,^[143] compared to 5.33 at London Heathrow.^[144] Snow showers often pass through the city via the Cheshire gap on north westerly airstreams, but can also come off the North Sea from north easterly airstreams.^[142]

Extreme weather is rare, but the city has been known to experience tornadoes. On 14 June 1931, an extremely damaging T6/F3 tornado struck the city, carving an 11 mile damage path through Hollywood, Hall Green, Sparkbrook, Tyseley, Greet and Small Heath, causing extensive damage and killing 1 woman. On 23 November 1981, during a record-breaking nationwide tornado outbreak, two tornadoes touched down within the Birmingham city limits – in Erdington and Selly Oak – with six tornadoes touching down within the boundaries of the wider West Midlands county.^[145] More recently, a destructive T6/F3 tornado occurred in July 2005 in the south of the city, damaging homes and businesses in the area. The tornado took an almost parallel path to that of the 1931 tornado.^[146] Notable tornadoes have also struck the city in 1923, 1946, 1951, 1998 and 1999, most of which being of T2-T4/F1-F2 intensity.

Environment

Birmingham Botanical Gardens

There are 571 parks within Birmingham^[155] – more than any other European city^[156] – totalling over 3,500 hectares (14 sq mi) of public open space.^[155] The city has over six million trees,^[156] and 250 miles (400 kilometres) of urban brooks and streams.^[155] Sutton Park, which covers 2,400 acres (971 ha) in the north of the city,^[157] is the largest urban park in Europe and a national nature reserve.^[155] Birmingham Botanical Gardens, located close to the city centre, retains the regency landscape of its original design by J. C. Loudon in 1829,^[158] while the Winterbourne Botanic Garden in Edgbaston reflects the more informal Arts and Crafts tastes of its Edwardian origins.^[159]

Several green spaces within the borough are designated as green belt, as a portion of the wider West Midlands Green Belt. This is a strategic local government policy used to prevent urban sprawl and preserve greenfield land. Areas included are the aforementioned Sutton Park; land along the borough boundary by the Sutton Coldfield, Walmley and Minworth suburbs; Kingfisher, Sheldon, Woodgate Valley country parks; grounds by the Wake Green football club; Bartley and Frankley reservoirs; and Handsworth cemetery with surrounding golf courses.^[160]

Birmingham has many areas of wildlife that lie in both informal settings such as the Project Kingfisher and Woodgate Valley Country Park and in a selection of parks such as Lickey Hills Country Park, Pype Hayes Park & Newhall Valley, Handsworth Park, Kings Heath Park, and Cannon Hill Park, the latter also housing the mini zoo, Birmingham Wildlife Conservation Park.^[161]

Ethnic groups

Ethnic demography of Birmingham from 1951 to 2021

According to figures from the 2021 census, 48.7% of the population was White (42.9% White British, 1.5% White Irish, 4.0% Other White, 0.2% Roma, 0.1% Irish Traveller), 31% were Asian (17.0% Pakistani, 5.8% Indian, 4.2% Bangladeshi, 1.1% Chinese, 2.9% Other Asian), 10.9% were Black (5.8% African, 3.9% Caribbean, 1.2% Other Black), 4.8% of Mixed race (2.2% White and Black Caribbean, 0.4% White and Black African, 1.1% White and Asian, 1.1% Other Mixed), 1.7% Arab and 4.6% of Other ethnic heritage.^[169] The 2021 census showed 26.7% of the population were born outside the UK, an increase of 4.5% percentage points from 2011.^[168] Figures showed that the five largest foreign-born groups living in Birmingham were born in Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, Romania and Jamaica.^[170]

In 2011, 57% of primary and 52% of secondary pupils were from non-White British families.^[171] As of 2021, 31.6% of school pupils in Birmingham were White, 37.7% were Asian, 12.6% were Black, 9.7% were Mixed race and 8.4% were Other.^[172]

There is particularly a large community of Asian descent, especially from Pakistani, Indian and Bangladeshi backgrounds, as well as Afro-Caribbeans from the Commonwealth, and a solid Chinese presence through migrants from the former colony of Hong Kong.^[173] Birmingham also has an older Irish connection,^[174] with the city having the largest population of Irish in mainland Britain and home to its only Irish quarter, Digbeth.^[175]

Age structure and median age

In Birmingham, 65.9% of the population were aged between 15 and 64, higher than when compared to the national average of 64.1% in England and Wales. Furthermore, 20.9% of the population were aged under 15, higher than the national average of 17.4% while the population aged over 65 was 13.1%, which was lower than the national average of 18.6% respectively.^[176] Birmingham is one of the youngest cities in Europe with 40% of its population below the age of 25^[177] and the median age being 34 years of age, below the national average of 40.^[178]

Religion

Christianity is the largest religion within Birmingham, with 34% of residents identifying as Christians in the 2021 Census.^[179] The city's religious profile is highly diverse: outside London, Birmingham has the United Kingdom's largest Muslim, Sikh and Buddhist communities; its second largest Hindu community; and its seventh largest Jewish community.^[179] Between the 2001, 2011, and 2021 censuses, the proportion of Christians in Birmingham decreased from 59.1% to 46.1% to 34%, while the proportion of Muslims increased from 14.3% to 21.8% to 29.9% and the proportion of people with no religious affiliation increased from 12.4% to 19.3% to 24.1%. All other religions remained proportionately similar.^[180]

St Philip's Cathedral

St Philip's Cathedral was upgraded from church status when the Anglican Diocese of Birmingham was created in 1905. There are two other cathedrals: St Chad's, seat of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Birmingham and the Greek Orthodox Cathedral of the Dormition of the Mother of God and St Andrew. The Coptic Orthodox Diocese of the Midlands is also based at Birmingham, with a cathedral under construction. The original parish church of Birmingham, St Martin in the Bull Ring, is Grade II* listed. A short distance from Five Ways the Birmingham Oratory was completed in 1910 on the site of Cardinal Newman's original foundation. There are several Christadelphian meeting halls in the city and the Christadelphian Magazine and Publishing Group has its headquarters in Hall Green.

The oldest surviving synagogue in Birmingham is the 1825 Greek Revival Severn Street Synagogue, now a Freemasons' Lodge hall. It was replaced in 1856 by the Grade II* listed Singers Hill Synagogue. Birmingham Central Mosque, one of the largest in Europe, was constructed in the 1960s.^[181] During the late 1990s Ghamkol Shariff Masjid was built in Small Heath.^[182] The Guru Nanak Nishkam Sewak Jatha Sikh Gurdwara was built on Soho Road in Handsworth in the late 1970s and the Theravada Buddhist Dhamma Talaka Peace Pagoda near Edgbaston Reservoir in the 1990s. Winners' Chapel also maintains physical presence in Digbeth.

Music

Mirga Gražinytė-Tyla conducting the City of Birmingham Symphony Orchestra at Symphony Hall

Birmingham Town Hall dating from 1834, one of the most prominent music venues in the city

The City of Birmingham Symphony Orchestra's home venue is Symphony Hall. Other notable professional orchestras based in the city include the Birmingham Contemporary Music Group, the Royal Ballet Sinfonia and Ex Cathedra, a Baroque chamber choir and period instrument orchestra. The Orchestra of the Swan is the resident chamber orchestra at Birmingham Town Hall,^[206] where weekly recitals have also been given by the City Organist since 1834.^[207]

The Birmingham Triennial Music Festivals took place from 1784 to 1912. Music was specially composed, conducted or performed by Mendelssohn, Gounod, Sullivan, Dvořák, Bantock and Edward Elgar, who wrote four of his most famous choral pieces for Birmingham. Elgar's The Dream of Gerontius had its début performance there in 1900. Composers born in the city include Albert William Ketèlbey and Andrew Glover.^[208]

Jazz has been popular in the city since the 1920s,^[209] and there are many regular festivals such as the Harmonic Festival, the Mostly Jazz Festival and the annual International Jazz Festival.^[210]

Birmingham's other city-centre music venues include Arena Birmingham (previously known as the National Indoor Arena and the Barclaycard Arena), which was opened in 1991, O2 Academy on Bristol Street, which opened in September 2009 replacing the O2 Academy in Dale End, the CBSO Centre, opened in 1997, HMV Institute in Digbeth and the Bradshaw Hall at the Royal Birmingham Conservatoire.

Black Sabbath, pioneers of heavy metal,^[211] formed in Birmingham in 1968.

During the 1960s, Birmingham was the home of a music scene comparable to that of Liverpool.^[212] It was "a seething cauldron of musical activity", and the international success of groups such as The Move, The Spencer Davis Group, The Moody Blues, Traffic and the Electric Light Orchestra had a collective influence that stretched into the 1970s and beyond.^[212] The city was a centre for early heavy metal music,^[213] with pioneering metal bands from the late 1960s and 1970s such as Black Sabbath,^[211] Judas Priest,^[211] and half of Led Zeppelin having come from Birmingham.

The next decade saw the metal bands Napalm Death and Godflesh emerge from the city, as well as Benediction and the extreme black death metal act Anaal Nathrakh later. The funeral doom band Esoteric has been operating in the sub-genre since 1992. Birmingham was the birthplace of modern bhangra in the 1960s,^[214] and by the 1980s had established itself as the global centre of bhangra culture,^[215] which has grown into a global phenomenon embraced by members of the Indian diaspora worldwide from Los Angeles to Singapore.^[214] The 1970s also saw the rise of reggae and ska in the city with such bands as Steel Pulse, UB40, Musical Youth, The Beat and Beshara, expounding racial unity with politically leftist lyrics and multiracial line-ups, mirroring social currents in Birmingham at that time.

Other popular bands from Birmingham include Duran Duran, Johnny Foreigner, Fine Young Cannibals, Felt, Broadcast, Ocean Colour Scene, The Streets, The Twang, King Adora, Dexys Midnight Runners, and Magnum. Musicians Jeff Lynne, Ozzy Osbourne, Tony Iommi, Bill Ward, Geezer Butler, John Lodge, Roy Wood, Joan Armatrading, Toyah Willcox, Denny Laine, Sukshinder Shinda, Apache Indian, Steve Winwood, Jamelia, Oceans Ate Alaska, Fyfe Dangerfield and Laura Mvula all grew up in the city.^[216]

Theatre and performing arts

The Birmingham Hippodrome, home of the Birmingham Royal Ballet, is the UK's busiest single theatre.^[217]

Birmingham Repertory Theatre is Britain's longest-established producing theatre,^[218] presenting a wide variety of work in its three auditoria on Centenary Square and touring nationally and internationally.^[219] Other producing theatres in the city include the Blue Orange Theatre in the Jewellery Quarter; the Old Rep, home stage of the Birmingham Stage Company; and @ A. E. Harris, the base of the experimental Stan's Cafe theatre company, located within a working metal fabricators' factory. Touring theatre companies include the politically radical Banner Theatre, the Maverick Theatre Company and Kindle Theatre. The Alexandra Theatre and the Birmingham Hippodrome host large-scale touring productions, while professional drama is performed on a wide range of stages across the city, including the Crescent Theatre, the Custard Factory, the Old Joint Stock Theatre, the Drum in Aston and the mac in Cannon Hill Park.

The Birmingham Royal Ballet is one of the United Kingdom's five major ballet companies and one of three based outside London.^[220] It is resident at the Birmingham Hippodrome and tours extensively nationally and internationally. The company's associated ballet school – Elmhurst School for Dance in Edgbaston – is the oldest vocational dance school in the country.^[221]

The Birmingham Opera Company under artistic director Graham Vick has developed an international reputation for its avant-garde productions,^[222] which often take place in factories, abandoned buildings and other found spaces around the city.^[223] More conventional seasons by Welsh National Opera and other visiting opera companies take place regularly at the Birmingham Hippodrome.^[224] The first dedicated comedy club outside of London, The Glee Club, was opened in The Arcadian Centre, city centre, in 1994, and continues to host performances by leading regional, national and international acts.^[225]

Literature

W. H. Auden grew up in the Birmingham area and lived there for much of his early life.

Literary figures associated with Birmingham include Samuel Johnson who stayed in Birmingham for a short period and was born in nearby Lichfield. Arthur Conan Doyle worked in the Aston area of Birmingham whilst poet Louis MacNeice lived in Birmingham for six years. It was whilst staying in Birmingham that American author Washington Irving produced several of his most famous literary works, such as Bracebridge Hall and The Humorists, A Medley which are based on Aston Hall, as well as The Legend of Sleepy Hollow and Rip Van Winkle.^[226]

The poet W. H. Auden grew up in the Harborne area of the city and during the 1930s formed the core of the Auden Group with Birmingham University lecturer Louis MacNeice. Other influential poets associated with Birmingham include Roi Kwabena, who was the city's sixth poet laureate,^[227] and Benjamin Zephaniah, who was born in the city.^[228]

Tolkien's blue plaque at Sarehole Mill, the inspiration for The Shire

The author J. R. R. Tolkien was brought up in the Kings Heath area of Birmingham.^[229] He referred to Birmingham as his home town and to himself as a ‘Birmingham man’. There is a dedicated 'Tolkien Trail' across Birmingham which takes those who follow it to the landmarks which are said to have inspired Tolkien's works.^[230]

The award-winning political playwright David Edgar was born in Birmingham,^[231] and the science fiction author John Wyndham spent his early childhood in the Edgbaston area of the city.^[232]

Birmingham has a vibrant contemporary literary scene, with local authors including David Lodge, Jim Crace, Jonathan Coe, Joel Lane and Judith Cutler.^[233] The city's leading contemporary literary publisher is the Tindal Street Press, whose authors include prize-winning novelists Catherine O'Flynn, Clare Morrall and Austin Clarke.^[234]

Art and design

Boys Fishing (c.1859), by David Cox, a major figure in the Birmingham School of landscape artists

The Birmingham School of landscape artists emerged with Daniel Bond in the 1760s and was to last into the mid 19th century.^[235] Its most important figure was David Cox, whose later works make him an important precursor of impressionism.^[236] The influence of the Royal Birmingham Society of Artists and the Birmingham School of Art made Birmingham an important centre of Victorian art, particularly within the Pre-Raphaelite and Arts and Crafts movements.^[237] Major figures included the Pre-Raphaelite and symbolist Edward Burne-Jones; Walter Langley, the first of the Newlyn School painters;^[238] and Joseph Southall, leader of the group of artists and craftsmen known as the Birmingham Group.

The Birmingham Surrealists were among the "harbingers of surrealism" in Britain in the 1930s and the movement's most active members in the 1940s,^[239] while more abstract artists associated with the city included Lee Bank-born David Bomberg and CoBrA member William Gear. Birmingham artists were prominent in several post-war developments in art: Peter Phillips was among the central figures in the birth of Pop Art;^[240] John Salt was the only major European figure among the pioneers of photo-realism;^[241] and the BLK Art Group used painting, collage and multimedia to examine the politics and culture of Black British identity. Contemporary artists from the city include the Turner Prize winner Gillian Wearing and the Turner Prize shortlisted artists Richard Billingham, John Walker, Roger Hiorns, and conceptual artist Pogus Caesar whose work has been acquired by the Victoria and Albert Museum, National Portrait Gallery, Wolverhampton Art Gallery and Birmingham Museum & Art Gallery.^[242]

Birmingham's role as a manufacturing and printing centre has supported strong local traditions of graphic design and product design. Iconic works by Birmingham designers include the Baskerville font,^[243] Ruskin Pottery,^[244] the Acme Thunderer whistle,^[245] the Art Deco branding of the Odeon Cinemas^[246] and the Mini.^[247]

Museums and galleries

Birmingham Museum and Art Gallery is a major museum and art gallery with a collection of international importance.

Birmingham has two major public art collections. Birmingham Museum & Art Gallery is best known for its works by the Pre-Raphaelites, a collection "of outstanding importance".^[248] It also holds a significant selection of old masters – including major works by Bellini, Rubens, Canaletto and Claude – and particularly strong collections of 17th-century Italian Baroque painting and English watercolours.^[248] Its design holdings include Europe's pre-eminent collections of ceramics and fine metalwork.^[248] The Barber Institute of Fine Arts in Edgbaston is one of the finest small art galleries in the world,^[249] with a collection of exceptional quality representing Western art from the 13th century to the present day.^[250]

Birmingham Museums Trust runs other museums in the city including Aston Hall, Blakesley Hall, the Museum of the Jewellery Quarter, Soho House and Sarehole Mill.^[251] The Birmingham Back to Backs are the last surviving court of back-to-back houses in the city.^[252] Cadbury World is a museum showing visitors the stages and steps of chocolate production and the history of chocolate and the company. The Ikon Gallery hosts displays of contemporary art, as does Eastside Projects.^[253]

Thinktank is Birmingham's main science museum, with a giant screen cinema, a planetarium and a collection that includes the Smethwick Engine, the world's oldest working steam engine.^[254] Other science-based museums include the National Sea Life Centre in Brindleyplace, the Lapworth Museum of Geology at the University of Birmingham and the Centre of the Earth environmental education centre in Winson Green.^[255]

Nightlife

Digbeth Institute, an influential music venue since the 1960s

Nightlife in Birmingham is mainly concentrated along Broad Street and into Brindleyplace. Although in more recent years, Broad Street has lost its popularity due to the closing of several clubs; the Arcadian now has more popularity in terms of nightlife. Outside the Broad Street area are many stylish and underground venues. The Medicine Bar in the Custard Factory, hmv Institute, Rainbow Pub and Air are large clubs and bars in Digbeth. Around the Chinese Quarter are areas such as the Arcadian and Hurst Street Gay Village, that abound with bars and clubs. Summer Row, The Mailbox, O2 Academy in Bristol Street, Snobs Nightclub, St Philips/Colmore Row, St Paul's Square and the Jewellery Quarter all have a vibrant night life. There are a number of late night pubs in the Irish Quarter.^[256] Outside the city centre is Star City entertainment complex on the former site of Nechells Power Station.^[257]

Festivals

Birmingham is home to many national, religious and cultural festivals, including a St. George's Day party. The city's largest single-day event is its St. Patrick's Day parade (Europe's second largest, after Dublin).^[258] The Nowka Bais is a Bengali boat racing festival which takes place annually in Birmingham. It is a leading cultural event in the West Midlands, United Kingdom attracting not only the Bangladeshi diaspora but a variety of cultures.^[259] It is also the largest kind of boat race in the United Kingdom.^[260] Other multicultural events include the Bangla Mela and the Vaisakhi Mela. The Birmingham Heritage Festival is a Mardi Gras style event in August. Caribbean and African culture are celebrated with parades and street performances by buskers. The Caribbean-style Birmingham International Carnival takes place in odd-numbered years.

Birmingham's St Patrick's Day parade, the largest in Europe outside Dublin, is the city's largest single-day event.^[261]

The UK's largest two-day Gay Pride is Birmingham Pride (LGBT festival), which is typically held over the spring bank holiday weekend in May.^[262][263] The streets of Birmingham's gay district pulsate with a carnival parade, live music, a dance arena with DJs, cabaret stage, women's arena and a community village. Birmingham Pride takes place in the gay village. From 1997 until December 2006, the city hosted an annual arts festival, ArtsFest, the largest free arts festival in the UK at the time.^[264]

The Birmingham Tattoo is a long-standing military show held annually at the National Indoor Arena. The Birmingham Comedy Festival (since 2001; 10 days in October), has been headlined by such acts as Peter Kay, The Fast Show, Jimmy Carr, Lee Evans and Lenny Henry.^[265] Since 2001, Birmingham has been host to the Frankfurt Christmas Market. Modelled on its German counterpart, it has grown to become the UK's largest outdoor Christmas market and is the largest German market outside of Germany and Austria,^[266] attracting over 3.1 million visitors in 2010^[267] and over 5 million visitors in 2011.^[268]

The biennial Birmingham International Dance Festival (BIDF) started in 2008, organised by DanceXchange and involving indoor and outdoor venues across the city.^[269] Other festivals in the city include the Birmingham International Jazz Festival. Moseley Folk and Arts Festival, and Mostly Jazz Festival.^[270]

Food and drink

Simpsons in Edgbaston, one of the city's five Michelin-starred restaurants

Birmingham's development as a commercial town was originally based around its market for agricultural produce, established by royal charter in 1166. Despite the industrialisation of subsequent centuries this role has been retained and the Birmingham Wholesale Markets remain the largest combined wholesale food markets in the country,^[271] selling meat, fish, fruit, vegetables and flowers and supplying fresh produce to restaurateurs and independent retailers from as far as 100 miles (161 km) away.^[272]

Birmingham is the only city outside London to have five Michelin starred restaurants: Simpson's in Edgbaston, Carters of Moseley, and Purnell's, Opheem and Adam's in the city centre.^[273]

Birmingham based breweries included Ansells, Davenport's and Mitchells & Butlers.^[274] Aston Manor Brewery is currently the only brewery of any significant size. Many fine Victorian pubs and bars can still be found across the city, whilst there is also a plethora of more modern nightclubs and bars, notably along Broad Street.^[275]

The Wing Yip food empire first began in the city and now has its headquarters in Nechells.^[276] The Balti, a type of curry, was invented in the city, which has received much acclaim for the 'Balti Belt' or 'Balti Triangle'.^[277] Famous food brands that originated in Birmingham include Typhoo tea, Bird's Custard, Cadbury's chocolate and HP Sauce. There is also a thriving independent and artisan food sector in Birmingham, encompassing microbreweries like Two Towers,^[278] and collective bakeries such as Loaf.^[279] Recent years have seen these businesses increasingly showcased at farmers markets,^[280] popular street food events^[281] and food festivals including Birmingham Independent Food Fair.^[282][283]

Entertainment and leisure

Birmingham is home to many entertainment and leisure venues, including Europe's largest leisure and entertainment complex Star City as well as Europe's first out-of-city-centre entertainment and leisure complex Resorts World Birmingham owned by the Genting Group. The Mailbox which caters for more affluent clients is based within the city.^[284]

Architecture

17 & 19 Newhall Street, constructed in Birmingham's characteristic Victorian red brick and terracotta style

The Bull by Laurence Broderick at the shopping centre "The Bull Ring"

Birmingham is chiefly a product of the 18th, 19th and 20th centuries; its growth began during the Industrial Revolution. Consequently, relatively few buildings survive from its earlier history and those that do are protected. There are 1,946 listed buildings in Birmingham and thirteen scheduled ancient monuments.^[285] Birmingham City Council also operate a locally listing scheme for buildings that do not fully meet the criteria for statutorily listed status.^[286]

Traces of medieval Birmingham can be seen in the oldest churches, notably the original parish church, St Martin in the Bull Ring. A few other buildings from the medieval and Tudor periods survive, among them the Lad in the Lane^[287] and The Old Crown, the 15th century Saracen's Head public house and Old Grammar School in Kings Norton^[288] and Blakesley Hall.

A number of Georgian buildings survive, including St Philip's Cathedral, Soho House, Perrott's Folly, the Town Hall and much of St Paul's Square. The Victorian era saw extensive building across the city. Major civic buildings such as the Victoria Law Courts (in characteristic red brick and terracotta), the Council House and the Museum & Art Gallery were constructed.^[289] St Chad's Cathedral was the first Roman Catholic cathedral to be built in the UK since the Reformation.^[290] Across the city, the need to house the industrial workers gave rise to miles of redbrick streets and terraces, many of back-to-back houses, some of which were later to become inner-city slums.^[291]

The iconic Selfridges Building,
by architects Future Systems

Postwar redevelopment and anti-Victorianism resulted in the loss of dozens of Victorian buildings like New Street station and the old Central Library, often replaced by brutalist architecture.^[292] Sir Herbert Manzoni, City Engineer and Surveyor of Birmingham from 1935 until 1963, believed conservation of old buildings was sentimental and that the city did not have any of worth anyway.^[293] In inner-city areas too, much Victorian housing was demolished and redeveloped. Existing communities were relocated to tower block estates like Castle Vale.^[294]

In a partial reaction against the Manzoni years, Birmingham City Council is demolishing some of the brutalist buildings like the Central Library and has an extensive tower block demolition and renovation programme. There has been much redevelopment in the city centre in recent years, including the award-winning^[295] Future Systems' Selfridges building in the Bullring Shopping Centre, the Brindleyplace regeneration project, the Millennium Point science and technology centre, and the refurbishment of the iconic Rotunda building. Funding for many of these projects has come from the European Union; the Town Hall for example received £3 million in funding from the European Regional Development Fund.^[296]

Highrise development has slowed since the 1970s and mainly in recent years because of enforcements imposed by the Civil Aviation Authority on the heights of buildings as they could affect aircraft from the Airport (e.g. Beetham Tower).^[297]

Demonymy and identity

People from Birmingham are called Brummies, a term derived from the city's nickname of "Brum", which originates from the city's old name, Brummagem.^[298][299] The Brummie accent and dialect are particularly distinctive.

Roads

The Gravelly Hill Interchange, where the M6 motorway meets the Aston Expressway, is the newer Spaghetti Junction.

The city is served by the M5, M6, M40 and M42 motorways, and possibly the most well known motorway junction in the United Kingdom: Spaghetti Junction, a colloquial name for the Gravelly Hill Interchange.^[301] The M6 passes through the city on the Bromford Viaduct, which at 3.5 miles (5.6 km) is the longest bridge in the UK.^[302] The Middleway (A4540) is a ring road that runs around the city centre. In the past there used to be a smaller ring road in the core of the city named Inner Ring Road.

Birmingham introduced a Clean Air Zone from 1 June 2021, which charges polluting vehicles to travel into the city centre.^[303]

Air

Birmingham Airport, located 6 miles (9.7 km) east of the city centre in the neighbouring borough of Solihull, is the seventh busiest airport by passenger traffic in the UK and the third busiest outside the London area, after Manchester and Edinburgh. It is a major base for Jet2,^[304] Ryanair^[305] and TUI Airways.^[306] Airline services operate from Birmingham to many destinations in Europe, Africa, the Americas, Middle East, Asia and Oceania.^[307]

Public transport

Birmingham New Street is one of largest and busiest railway stations in the UK.^[308]

Birmingham's local public transport network is co-ordinated by Transport for West Midlands (TfWM) which is a branch of the West Midlands Combined Authority.^[309]

Birmingham has a high level of public transport usage; in 2015, 63% of morning peak trips into Birmingham were made by public transport, with the remaining 37% made by private car. Rail was the most popular public transport mode, accounting for 36.4% of journeys, followed by buses at 26.3% and the Metro at 0.3%.^[309]

There is currently no underground system in Birmingham; it is the largest city in Europe not to have one. In recent years, ideas of an underground system have started to appear, but none so far have been planned in earnest primarily due to the ongoing expansion of the West Midlands Metro tram network being viewed as a higher priority.^[310]

Railway

High-speed trains in Birmingham. Rail connections are widespread throughout the city.^[311]

The main railway station in the city is Birmingham New Street, which is the busiest railway station in the UK outside London, both for passenger entries/exits and for passenger interchanges.^[312] It is the national hub for CrossCountry, the most extensive long-distance train network in Britain,^[313] and a major destination for Avanti West Coast services from London Euston, Glasgow Central and Edinburgh Waverley.^[314] Birmingham Moor Street and Birmingham Snow Hill form the northern termini for Chiltern Railways express trains running from London Marylebone.^[315] Curzon Street railway station, currently under construction, will be the terminus for trains to the city on High Speed 2, the first phase of which will open around 2030.^[316]

Birmingham and the surrounding region have a network of local and suburban railways, mostly operated by West Midlands Trains. There are a total of 70 railway stations within the West Midlands county, 34 of which are within Birmingham's city boundaries. Suburban railway lines in Birmingham include the Cross-City Line, the Chase Line, the Snow Hill Lines and the Birmingham loop. In 2016/17, there were nearly 55 million rail passenger journeys within the TfWM area, a big increase over the 23 million back in 2000/01.^[309]

The West Midlands Metro is the growing tram system in Birmingham.

Bus

Bus networks throughout the city and wider region are widespread.^[317] 261 million bus journeys were made in the TfWM area in 2016/17.^[309] Bus routes are mainly operated commercially by private companies, although TfWM subsidises socially necessary services. National Express West Midlands, accounts for nearly 80% of all bus journeys in Birmingham,^[309] though there are around 40 other, smaller registered bus companies, notably Diamond, running a large proportion of routes in the Black Country, and part running some routes alongside National Express, such as the 4H, 16/16A, and 50.

National Express West Midlands operates most of the major bus routes in Birmingham.

The number 11 outer circle bus route, run by National Express West Midlands, which operates in both clockwise^[318] and anti-clockwise^[319] directions around the outskirts of the city, is the longest urban bus route in Europe, being over 26 miles (42 km) long^[320] with 272 bus stops.^[321] In order to run the route effectively it has been split into two sections, running from Acocks Green to Erdington, and Perry Barr to Acocks Green, between the Acocks Green and Perry Barr Garages.

The Mobico Group headquarters are located in Digbeth, in offices above Birmingham Coach Station, which forms the national hub of the company's National Express coach network. The bus division is based in Bordesley Green, just outside of the city centre, with 8 garages in Acocks Green, Digbeth (named Birmingham Central), Pensnett, Perry Barr, Walsall, West Bromwich, Wolverhampton, and Yardley Wood.

Until 1974, the other major bus operator in Birmingham was Midland Red who had a number of bus depots both in Birmingham and the wider metropolitan area. After selling the West Midlands-based operations to the West Midlands Passenger Transport Executive, the company and its successors continued to serve Birmingham on many routes from outside the West Midlands County.

Canals

An extensive canal system still remains in Birmingham from the Industrial Revolution. The city has more miles of canal than Venice, though the canals in Birmingham are a less prominent and essential feature due to the larger size of the city and the fact that few of its buildings are accessed by canal.^[18] The canals are mainly used today for leisure purposes;^[323] canalside regeneration schemes such as Brindleyplace have turned the canals into a tourist attraction.^{[324][325][326]}

Further and higher education

Birmingham is home to five universities: Aston University, University of Birmingham, Birmingham City University, University College Birmingham and Newman University.^[327] The city also hosts major campuses of the University of Law and BPP University, as well as the Open University's West Midlands regional base.^[328] In 2011 Birmingham had 78,259 full-time students from all over the world aged 18–74 resident in the city during term time, more than any other city in the United Kingdom outside London.^[329] Birmingham has 32,690 research students, also the highest number of any major city outside London.^[330]

University of Birmingham is one of the leading universities and research clusters in Europe.^[331]

The Birmingham Business School, established by Sir William Ashley in 1902, is the oldest graduate-level business school in the United Kingdom.^[332] Another top business school in the city includes Aston Business School, one of fewer than 1% of business schools globally to be granted triple accreditation,^[333] and Birmingham City Business School. Royal Birmingham Conservatoire, part of Birmingham City University, offers professional training in music and acting.

Birmingham is an important centre for religious education. St Mary's College, Oscott is one of the three seminaries of the Catholic Church in England and Wales;^[334] Woodbrooke is the only Quaker study centre in Europe;^[335] and Queen's College, Edgbaston is an ecumenical theological college serving the Church of England, the Methodist Church and the United Reformed Church.

Birmingham Metropolitan College is one of the largest further education colleges in the country,^[336] with fourteen campuses spread across Birmingham and into the Black Country and Worcestershire.^[337] South & City College Birmingham has nine campuses spread throughout the city.^[338] Bournville College is based in a £66 million, 4.2 acre campus in Longbridge that opened in 2011.^[339] Fircroft College is a residential college based in a former Edwardian mansion in Selly Oak, founded in 1909 around a strong commitment to social justice, with many courses aimed at students with few prior formal qualifications.^[340] Queen Alexandra College is a specialist college based in Harborne offering further education to visually impaired or disabled students from all over the United Kingdom.^[341]

Primary and secondary education

Moseley School, one of the largest of the city's 168 secondary schools

Birmingham City Council is England's largest local education authority, directly or indirectly responsible for nursery schools, primary schools, secondary schools,^[342] special schools.,^[343] sixth form colleges, further education colleges, and adult education. t provides around 3,500 adult education courses throughout the year.^[344]

Most of Birmingham's state schools are academy schools, community schools, free schools and voluntary aided schools. Since the 1970s, most secondary schools in Birmingham have been 11-–-16/18 comprehensive schools, while post GCSE students have the choice of continuing their education in either a school's sixth form or at a further education college.

King Edward's School, Birmingham, founded in 1552 by King Edward VI, is one of the oldest schools in the city, teaching GCSE and IB, with alumni including J R R Tolkien, author of the Lord of the Rings books and The Hobbit.^[345][346] Independent schools in the city include the Birmingham Blue Coat School, King Edward VI High School for Girls and Edgbaston High School for Girls. Bishop Vesey's Grammar School was founded by Bishop Vesey in 1527.^[347]

Library services

The Library of Birmingham houses the largest municipal library in Europe.^[348][349]

The former Birmingham Central Library, opened in 1972, was considered to be the largest municipal library in Europe.^[350] Six of its collections were designated by the Arts Council England as being "pre-eminent collections of national and international importance", out of only eight collections to be so recognised in local authority libraries nationwide.^[351]

A new Library of Birmingham in Centenary Square, replacing Central Library, was opened on 3 September 2013. It was designed by the Dutch architects Mecanoo and has been described as "a kind of public forum ... a memorial, a shrine, to the book and to literature".^[352] The librar is viewed by the Birmingham City Council as a flagship project for the city's redevelopment. It has been described as the largest public library in the United Kingdom,^[353] the largest public cultural space in Europe,^{[354][355][356]} and the largest regional library in Europe.^[357] 2,414,860 visitors came to the library in 2014 making it the 10th most popular visitor attraction in the UK.^[358]

There are 41 local libraries in Birmingham, plus a regular mobile library service.^[359] The library service has 4 million visitors annually.^[360][361]

Emergency services

Law enforcement in Birmingham is carried out by West Midlands Police, whose headquarters are at Lloyd House in the city centre. With 87.92 recorded offences per 1000 population in 2009–10, Birmingham's crime rate is above the average for England and Wales, but lower than any of England's other major core cities and lower than many smaller cities such as Oxford, Cambridge or Brighton.^[362] Fire and rescue services in Birmingham are provided by West Midlands Fire Service and emergency medical care by West Midlands Ambulance Service.^[363]

Healthcare

The Queen Elizabeth Hospital in Edgbaston houses the largest single floor critical care unit in the world and in Europe.^[364]

There are several major National Health Service hospitals in Birmingham. The Queen Elizabeth Hospital, adjacent to the Birmingham Medical School in Edgbaston, is one of the largest teaching hospitals in the United Kingdom with over 1,200 beds. It is a major trauma centre offering services to the extended West Midlands region and houses the largest single-floor critical care unit in the world, with 100 beds.^[365] The hospital has the largest solid organ transplantation programme in Europe as well as the largest renal transplant programme in the United Kingdom and it is a national specialist centre for liver, heart and lung transplantation, as well as cancer studies. It is the home of the Royal Centre for Defence Medicine for military personnel injured in conflict zones.^[366]

Other general hospitals in the city include Heartlands Hospital in Bordesley Green, Good Hope Hospital in Sutton Coldfield and City Hospital in Winson Green. There are also many specialist hospitals, such as Birmingham Children's Hospital, Birmingham Women's Hospital, Birmingham Dental Hospital, and the Royal Orthopaedic Hospital. Birmingham saw the first ever use of radiography in an operation,^[367] and the UK's first ever hole-in-the-heart operation was performed at Birmingham Children's Hospital.

Water supply

The Birmingham Corporation Water Department was set up in 1876 to supply water to Birmingham, up until 1974 when its responsibilities were transferred to Severn Trent Water. Most of Birmingham's water is supplied by the Elan aqueduct,^[368] opened in 1904; water is fed by gravity to Frankley Reservoir, Frankley, and Bartley Reservoir, Bartley Green, from reservoirs in the Elan Valley, Wales.^[369]

Energy from waste

Within Birmingham the Tyseley Energy from Waste Plant, a large incineration plant built in 1996 for Veolia,^[370] burns some 366,414 tonnes of household waste annually and produces 166,230 MWh of electricity for the National Grid along with 282,013 tonnes of carbon dioxide.^[371]

Commonwealth Games

Birmingham hosted the 2022 Commonwealth Games, which took place between 28 July and 8 August 2022. This was the first time that Birmingham has hosted the Commonwealth games and the 22nd Commonwealth games to take place.^[395] Birmingham has a wealth of existing sports venues, arenas and conference halls that proved ideal for hosting sport during the Games. Alexander Stadium, which hosted the ceremonies and athletics was renovated, and the capacity was increased to 40,000 seats. The 2022 Commonwealth Games in Birmingham were expected to generate a £526 million boost to the West Midlands regional economy.^[396] The official handover to Birmingham took place at the Gold Coast 2018 Commonwealth Games closing ceremony on 15 April 2018.^[397]

Citations