Ca
Example glyphs
Bengali-Assamese
Tibetan
Tamil
Thai	จ
Malayalam	ച
Sinhala	ච
Ashoka Brahmi
Devanagari
Cognates
Hebrew	צ ,ץ
Greek	Ϻ (Ͷ), Ͳ (Ϡ)
Cyrillic	Ц, Ч, Ћ, Џ
Properties
Phonemic representation	/t͡ʃ t͡ɕ t͡s c/
IAST transliteration	ca Ca
ISCII code point	B8 (184)

Ca is the sixth consonant of Indic abugidas. In modern Indic scripts, ca is derived from the early "Ashoka" Brahmi letter , which is probably derived from the North Semitic letter tsade (reflected in the Aramaic , "ts"), with an inversion seen in several other derivatives,^[1] after having gone through the Gupta letter .

Āryabhaṭa numeration

Aryabhata used Devanagari letters for numbers, very similar to the Greek numerals, even after the invention of Indian numerals. The values of the different forms of च are:^[2]

• च [t͡ɕɐ] = 6 (६)
• चि [t͡ɕi] = 600 (६००)
• चु [t͡ɕu] = 60,000 (६० ०००)
• चृ [t͡ɕr̩] = 6,000,000 (६० ०० ०००)
• चॢ [t͡ɕl̩] = 6×10⁸ (६०^८)
• चे [t͡ɕeː] = 6×10¹⁰ (६०^१०)
• चै [t͡ɕai] = 6×10¹² (६०^१२)
• चो [t͡ɕoː] = 6×10¹⁴ (६०^१४)
• चौ [t͡ɕau] = 6×10¹⁶ (६०^१६)

Historic Ca

There are three different general early historic scripts - Brahmi and its variants, Kharoṣṭhī, and Tocharian, the so-called slanting Brahmi. Ca as found in standard Brahmi, was a simple geometric shape, with variations toward more flowing forms by the Gupta . The Tocharian Ca did not have an alternate Fremdzeichen form. The third form of ca, in Kharoshthi () was probably derived from Aramaic separately from the Brahmi letter.

Brahmi Ca

The Brahmi letter , Ca, is probably derived from the Aramaic Tsade , and is thus related to the Greek San. Several identifiable styles of writing the Brahmi Ca can be found, most associated with a specific set of inscriptions from an artifact or diverse records from an historic period.^[3] As the earliest and most geometric style of Brahmi, the letters found on the Edicts of Ashoka and other records from around that time are normally the reference form for Brahmi letters, with vowel marks not attested until later forms of Brahmi back-formed to match the geometric writing style.

Brahmi Ca historic forms

Ashoka (3rd-1st c. BCE)	Girnar (~150 BCE)	Kushana (~150-250 CE)	Gujarat (~250 CE)	Gupta (~350 CE)

Tocharian Ca

The Tocharian letter is derived from the Brahmi , but does not have an alternate Fremdzeichen form.

Tocharian Ca with vowel marks

Ca	Cā	Ci	Cī	Cu	Cū	Cr	Cr̄	Ce	Cai	Co	Cau	Cä

Devanagari script

Devanāgarī
Abugida Brahmic scripts Inherent vowel
Languages Hindi Marathi Nepali Konkani Maithili Sindhi Bodo Pali Prakrit Sanskrit and more
Transliteration IAST Hunterian NLK ISO 15919 Harvard-Kyoto ITRANS Velthuis SLP1 WX notation (ISCII)
Vowels and syllabic consonants अ a ॲ æ ऄ आ (का) ā इ (कि) i ई (की) ī उ (कु) u ऊ (कू) ū ॶ (कॖ) ॷ (कॗ) ऋ (कृ) r̥ ॠ (कॄ) r̥̄ ऌ (कॢ) l̥ ॡ (कॣ) l̥̄ ए (के) ē ऍ (कॅ) ê ऎ (कॆ) e ऐ (कै) ai (कॕ) (कॎ) ओ (को) ō ऑ (कॉ) ô ऒ (कॊ) o औ (कौ) au ॳ (कऺ) ॴ (कऻ) ॵ (कॏ) (Schwa deletion)
Consonants क k क़ q ख kh ख़ k̲h̲ ग g ग़ ġ ॻ gg घ gh ङ ṅ च c छ ch ज j ज़ z ॼ jj ॹ ž झ jh झ़ zh ञ ñ ट ṭ ठ ṭh ड ḍ ड़ ṛ ॾ ḍḍ ॸ ḍ ढ ḍh ढ़ ṛh ण ṇ त t थ th द d ध dh न n ऩ ṉ प p फ ph फ़ f ब b ॿ bb भ bh म m य y य़ ẏ ॺ र r ऱ ṟ ळ ḷ ऴ ḻ ल l व v श ś ष ṣ स s ह h ॽ (Conjuncts)
Diacritics, punctuation, symbols अं ṁ अः ḥ अँ m̐ अऀ ऽ ’ क़ क् ३ 3 ᳵ ẖ ᳶ ḫ अ॑ ` अ॒ _ अ॓ अ॔ ॐ aum̐ । ॥ ॰ ॱ ₹ INR and more (Devanagari (Unicode block) Devanagari Extended Devanagari Extended-A Vedic Extensions)
Numerals ० 0 १ 1 २ 2 ३ 3 ४ 4 ५ 5 ६ 6 ७ 7 ८ 8 ९ 9 Āryabhaṭa Akṣarapallī Bhūtasaṃkhyā Kaṭapayādi

Ca (च) is the sixth consonant of the Devanagari abugida. It ultimately arose from the Brahmi letter , after having gone through the Gupta letter . In Marathi, च is sometimes pronounced as [t͡sə] or [t͡s] in addition to [t͡ʃə] or [t͡ʃ], while in Nepali, the [t͡s] pronunciation is standard, and deviates with regard to dialect. Letters that derive from it are the Gujarati letter ચ and the Modi letter 𑘓.

Conjuncts with च

Half form of Ca.

Devanagari exhibits conjunct ligatures, as is common in Indic scripts. In modern Devanagari texts, most conjuncts are formed by reducing the letter shape to fit tightly to the following letter, usually by dropping a character's vertical stem, sometimes referred to as a "half form". Some conjunct clusters are always represented by a true ligature, instead of a shape that can be broken into constituent independent letters. Vertically stacked conjuncts are ubiquitous in older texts, while only a few are still used routinely in modern Devanagari texts. The use of ligatures and vertical conjuncts may vary across languages using the Devanagari script, with Marathi in particular preferring the use of half forms where texts in other languages would show ligatures and vertical stacks.^[4]

Ligature conjuncts of च

True ligatures are quite rare in Indic scripts. The most common ligated conjuncts in Devanagari are in the form of a slight mutation to fit in context or as a consistent variant form appended to the adjacent characters. Those variants include Na and the Repha and Rakar forms of Ra. Nepali and Marathi texts use the "eyelash" Ra half form for an initial "R" instead of repha.

• Repha र্ (r) + च (ca) gives the ligature rca: ^note

• Eyelash र্ (r) + च (ca) gives the ligature rca:

• च্ (c) + rakar र (ra) gives the ligature cra:

• च্ (c) + न (na) gives the ligature cna:

Stacked conjuncts of च

Vertically stacked ligatures are the most common conjunct forms found in Devanagari text. Although the constituent characters may need to be stretched and moved slightly in order to stack neatly, stacked conjuncts can be broken down into recognizable base letters, or a letter and an otherwise standard ligature.

• ब্ (b) + च (ca) gives the ligature bca:

• भ্ (bʰ) + च (ca) gives the ligature bʰca:

• च্ (c) + ब (ba) gives the ligature cba:

• च্ (c) + च (ca) gives the ligature cca:

• च্ (c) + ड (ḍa) gives the ligature cḍa:

• छ্ (cʰ) + च (ca) gives the ligature cʰca:

• च্ (c) + ज (ja) gives the ligature cja:

• च্ (c) + ज্ (j) + ञ (ña) gives the ligature cjña:

• च্ (c) + क (ka) gives the ligature cka:

• च্ (c) + ल (la) gives the ligature cla:

• च্ (c) + ङ (ŋa) gives the ligature cŋa:

• च্ (c) + ञ (ña) gives the ligature cña:

• च্ (c) + व (va) gives the ligature cva:

• द্ (d) + च (ca) gives the ligature dca:

• ड্ (ḍ) + च (ca) gives the ligature ḍca:

• ढ্ (ḍʱ) + च (ca) gives the ligature ḍʱca:

• ध্ (dʱ) + च (ca) gives the ligature dʱca:

• घ্ (ɡʱ) + च (ca) gives the ligature ɡʱca:

• ह্ (h) + च (ca) gives the ligature hca:

• ज্ (j) + च (ca) gives the ligature jca:

• झ্ (jʰ) + च (ca) gives the ligature jʰca:

• क্ (k) + च (ca) gives the ligature kca:

• ख্ (kʰ) + च (ca) gives the ligature kʰca:

• ल্ (l) + च (ca) gives the ligature lca:

• ळ্ (ḷ) + च (ca) gives the ligature ḷca:

• म্ (m) + च (ca) gives the ligature mca:

• न্ (n) + च (ca) gives the ligature nca:

• ङ্ (ŋ) + च (ca) gives the ligature ŋca:

• ञ্ (ñ) + च (ca) gives the ligature ñca:

• प্ (p) + च (ca) gives the ligature pca:

• फ্ (pʰ) + च (ca) gives the ligature pʰca:

• स্ (s) + च (ca) gives the ligature sca:

• श্ (ʃ) + च (ca) gives the ligature ʃca:

• ष্ (ṣ) + च (ca) gives the ligature ṣca:

• त্ (t) + च (ca) gives the ligature tca:

• थ্ (tʰ) + च (ca) gives the ligature tʰca:

• ट্ (ṭ) + च (ca) gives the ligature ṭca:

• ठ্ (ṭʰ) + च (ca) gives the ligature ṭʰca:

• व্ (v) + च (ca) gives the ligature vca:

• य্ (y) + च (ca) gives the ligature yca:

Bengali script

The Bengali script চ is derived from the Siddhaṃ , and is marked by a similar horizontal head line, but less geometric shape, than its Devanagari counterpart, च. The inherent vowel of Bengali consonant letters is /ɔ/, so the bare letter চ will sometimes be transliterated as "co" instead of "ca". Adding okar, the "o" vowel mark, gives a reading of /t͡ʃo/. Like all Indic consonants, চ can be modified by marks to indicate another (or no) vowel than its inherent "a".

Gurmukhi script

Chachaa [t͡ʃət͡ʃːɑ] (ਚ) is the eleventh letter of the Gurmukhi alphabet. Its name is [t͡ʃət͡ʃːɑ] and is pronounced as /t͡ʃ/ when used in words. It is derived from the Laṇḍā letter ca, and ultimately from the Brahmi ca. Gurmukhi chachaa does not have a special pairin or addha (reduced) form for making conjuncts, and in modern Punjabi texts do not take a half form or halant to indicate the bare consonant /t͡ʃ/, although Gurmukhi Sanskrit texts may use an explicit halant.

Gujarati Ca

Gujarati Ca.

Ca (ચ) is the sixth consonant of the Gujarati abugida. It is derived from the 16th century Devanagari Ca with the top bar (shiro rekha) removed, and ultimately from the Brahmi letter . The Gujarati letter Ca (ચ) should not be confused with the Gujarati vowel A (અ), and care should be taken when reading Gujarati script texts not to confuse the two.

Gujarati-using Languages

The Gujarati script is used to write the Gujarati and Kutchi languages. In both languages, ચ is pronounced as [cə] or [c] when appropriate. Like all Indic scripts, Gujarati uses vowel marks attached to the base consonant to override the inherent /ə/ vowel:

Ca	Cā	Ci	Cī	Cu	Cū	Cr	Cl	Cr̄	Cl̄	Cĕ	Ce	Cai	Cŏ	Co	Cau	C
Gujarati Ca syllables, with vowel marks in red.

Conjuncts with ચ

Half form of Ca.

Gujarati ચ exhibits conjunct ligatures, much like its parent Devanagari Script. Most Gujarati conjuncts can only be formed by reducing the letter shape to fit tightly to the following letter, usually by dropping a character's vertical stem, sometimes referred to as a "half form". A few conjunct clusters can be represented by a true ligature, instead of a shape that can be broken into constituent independent letters, and vertically stacked conjuncts can also be found in Gujarati, although much less commonly than in Devanagari. True ligatures are quite rare in Indic scripts. The most common ligated conjuncts in Gujarati are in the form of a slight mutation to fit in context or as a consistent variant form appended to the adjacent characters. Those variants include Na and the Repha and Rakar forms of Ra.

• ર્ (r) + ચ (ca) gives the ligature RCa:

• ચ્ (c) + ર (ra) gives the ligature CRa:

• ચ્ (c) + ન (na) gives the ligature CNa:

• શ્ (ʃ) + ચ (ca) gives the ligature ŚCa:

Thai script

Cho chan (จ) is the eighth letter of the Thai script. It falls under the middle class of Thai consonants. In IPA, cho chan is pronounced as [tɕ] at the beginning of a syllable and is pronounced as [t̚] at the end of a syllable. There are three other letters whose names contain cho in RTGS (and hence in the Unicode names), but their sounds at the beginning of syllable are [tɕʰ]. The ninth letter of the alphabet, cho ching (ฉ), is also named cho and falls under the high class of Thai consonants. The tenth and twelfth letters of the alphabet, cho chang (ช) and cho choe (ฌ), are also named cho, however, they all fall under the low class of Thai consonants. Unlike many Indic scripts, Thai consonants do not form conjunct ligatures, and use the pinthu—an explicit virama with a dot shape—to indicate bare consonants. In the acrophony of the Thai script, chan (จาน) means ‘plate’. Cho chan corresponds to the Sanskrit character ‘च’.

Javanese script

Telugu Ca

Telugu independent and subjoined Ca.

Ca (చ) is a consonant of the Telugu abugida. It ultimately arose from the Brahmi letter . It is closely related to the Kannada letter ಚ. Most Telugu consonants contain a v-shaped headstroke that is related to the horizontal headline found in other Indic scripts, although headstrokes do not connect adjacent letters in Telugu. The headstroke is normally lost when adding vowel matras. Telugu conjuncts are created by reducing trailing letters to a subjoined form that appears below the initial consonant of the conjunct. Many subjoined forms are created by dropping their headline, with many extending the end of the stroke of the main letter body to form an extended tail reaching up to the right of the preceding consonant. This subjoining of trailing letters to create conjuncts is in contrast to the leading half forms of Devanagari and Bengali letters. Ligature conjuncts are not a feature in Telugu, with the only non-standard construction being an alternate subjoined form of Ṣa (borrowed from Kannada) in the KṢa conjunct.

Malayalam Ca

Malayalam letter Ca

Ca (ച) is a consonant of the Malayalam abugida. It ultimately arose from the Brahmi letter , via the Grantha letter Ca. Like in other Indic scripts, Malayalam consonants have the inherent vowel "a", and take one of several modifying vowel signs to represent syllables with another vowel or no vowel at all.

Malayalam Ca matras: Ca, Cā, Ci, Cī, Cu, Cū, Cr̥, Cr̥̄, Cl̥, Cl̥̄, Ce, Cē, Cai, Co, Cō, Cau, and C.

Odia Ca

Odia independent and subjoined letter Ca.

Ca (ଚ) is a consonant of the Odia abugida. It ultimately arose from the Brahmi letter , via the Siddhaṃ letter Ca. Like in other Indic scripts, Odia consonants have the inherent vowel "a", and take one of several modifying vowel signs to represent syllables with another vowel or no vowel at all.

Kaithi Ca

Kaithi consonant and half-form Ca.

Ca (𑂒) is a consonant of the Kaithi abugida. It ultimately arose from the Brahmi letter , via the Siddhaṃ letter Ca. Like in other Indic scripts, Kaithi consonants have the inherent vowel "a", and take one of several modifying vowel signs to represent syllables with another vowel or no vowel at all.

Comparison of Ca

The various Indic scripts are generally related to each other through adaptation and borrowing, and as such the glyphs for cognate letters, including Ca, are related as well.

Comparison of Ca in different scripts

Aramaic Kharoṣṭhī 𐨕 Ashoka Brahmi Kushana Brahmi[lower-alpha 1] Tocharian[lower-alpha 2] Gupta Brahmi Pallava Kadamba - Bhaiksuki 𑰓 Siddhaṃ Grantha 𑌚 Cham ꨌ Sinhala ච Pyu / Old Mon[lower-alpha 3] - Tibetan Newa 𑐔 Ahom - Malayalam ച Telugu చ Burmese စ Lepcha ᰆ Ranjana - Saurashtra ꢗ Dives Akuru 𑤑 Kannada ಚ Kayah Li - Limbu Soyombo[lower-alpha 4] 𑩡 Khmer ច Tamil Chakma 𑄌 Tai Tham ᨧ Meitei Mayek ꯆ Gaudi - Thai จ Lao ຈ Tai Le ᥓ Marchen 𑱶 Tirhuta 𑒔 New Tai Lue ᦈ Tai Viet ꪊ / ꪋ Aksara Kawi 'Phags-pa ꡄ Odia ଚ Sharada 𑆖 Rejang ꤹ Batak ᯡ Buginese ᨌ Zanabazar Square 𑨐 Bengali-Assamese Takri 𑚏 Javanese ꦕ Balinese ᬘ Makasar 𑻩 Hangul[lower-alpha 5] - Northern Nagari - Dogri 𑠏 Laṇḍā - Sundanese ᮎ Baybayin - Modi 𑘓 Gujarati ચ Khojki 𑈎 Khudabadi 𑋀 Mahajani 𑅙 Tagbanwa - Devanagari Nandinagari 𑦳 Kaithi Gurmukhi ਚ Multani 𑊊 Buhid - Canadian Syllabics[lower-alpha 6] - Soyombo[lower-alpha 7] 𑩡 Sylheti Nagari ꠌ Gunjala Gondi 𑵻 Masaram Gondi[lower-alpha 8] 𑴑 Hanuno'o - Notes ↑ The middle "Kushana" form of Brahmi is a later style that emerged as Brahmi scripts were beginning to proliferate. Gupta Brahmi was definitely a stylistic descendant from Kushana, but other Brahmi-derived scripts may have descended from earlier forms. ↑ Tocharian is probably derived from the middle period "Kushana" form of Brahmi, although artifacts from that time are not plentiful enough to establish a definite succession. ↑ Pyu and Old Mon are probably the precursors of the Burmese script, and may be derived from either the Pallava or Kadamba script ↑ May also be derived from Devangari (see bottom left of table) ↑ The Origin of Hangul from 'Phags-pa is one of limited influence, inspiring at most a few basic letter shapes. Hangul does not function as an Indic abugida. ↑ Although the basic letter forms of the Canadian Aboriginal Syllabics were derived from handwritten Devanagari letters, this abugida indicates vowel sounds by rotations of the letter form, rather than the use of vowel diacritics as is standard in Indic abugidas. ↑ May also be derived from Ranjana (see above) ↑ Masaram Gondi acts as an Indic abugida, but its letterforms were not derived from any single precursor script.

Character encodings of Ca

Most Indic scripts are encoded in the Unicode Standard, and as such the letter Ca in those scripts can be represented in plain text with unique codepoint. Ca from several modern-use scripts can also be found in legacy encodings, such as ISCII.

Character information

Preview							చ		ଚ		ಚ		ച		ચ		ਚ
Unicode name	DEVANAGARI LETTER CA		BENGALI LETTER CA		TAMIL LETTER CA		TELUGU LETTER CA		ORIYA LETTER CA		KANNADA LETTER CA		MALAYALAM LETTER CA		GUJARATI LETTER CA		GURMUKHI LETTER CA
Encodings	decimal	hex	dec	hex	dec	hex	dec	hex	dec	hex	dec	hex	dec	hex	dec	hex	dec	hex
Unicode	2330	U+091A	2458	U+099A	2970	U+0B9A	3098	U+0C1A	2842	U+0B1A	3226	U+0C9A	3354	U+0D1A	2714	U+0A9A	2586	U+0A1A
UTF-8	224 164 154	E0 A4 9A	224 166 154	E0 A6 9A	224 174 154	E0 AE 9A	224 176 154	E0 B0 9A	224 172 154	E0 AC 9A	224 178 154	E0 B2 9A	224 180 154	E0 B4 9A	224 170 154	E0 AA 9A	224 168 154	E0 A8 9A
Numeric character reference	च	च	চ	চ	ச	ச	చ	చ	ଚ	ଚ	ಚ	ಚ	ച	ച	ચ	ચ	ਚ	ਚ
ISCII	184	B8	184	B8	184	B8	184	B8	184	B8	184	B8	184	B8	184	B8	184	B8

Character information

Preview	Ashoka Kushana Gupta		𐨕				𑌚
Unicode name	BRAHMI LETTER CA		KHAROSHTHI LETTER CA		SIDDHAM LETTER CA		GRANTHA LETTER CA
Encodings	decimal	hex	dec	hex	dec	hex	dec	hex
Unicode	69656	U+11018	68117	U+10A15	71059	U+11593	70426	U+1131A
UTF-8	240 145 128 152	F0 91 80 98	240 144 168 149	F0 90 A8 95	240 145 150 147	F0 91 96 93	240 145 140 154	F0 91 8C 9A
UTF-16	55300 56344	D804 DC18	55298 56853	D802 DE15	55301 56723	D805 DD93	55300 57114	D804 DF1A
Numeric character reference	𑀘	𑀘	𐨕	𐨕	𑖓	𑖓	𑌚	𑌚

Character information

Preview			ྕ		ꡄ		𑨐		𑐔		𑰓		𑆖
Unicode name	TIBETAN LETTER CA		TIBETAN SUBJOINED LETTER CA		PHAGS-PA LETTER CA		ZANABAZAR SQUARE LETTER CA		NEWA LETTER CA		BHAIKSUKI LETTER CA		SHARADA LETTER CA
Encodings	decimal	hex	dec	hex	dec	hex	dec	hex	dec	hex	dec	hex	dec	hex
Unicode	3909	U+0F45	3989	U+0F95	43076	U+A844	72208	U+11A10	70676	U+11414	72723	U+11C13	70038	U+11196
UTF-8	224 189 133	E0 BD 85	224 190 149	E0 BE 95	234 161 132	EA A1 84	240 145 168 144	F0 91 A8 90	240 145 144 148	F0 91 90 94	240 145 176 147	F0 91 B0 93	240 145 134 150	F0 91 86 96
UTF-16	3909	0F45	3989	0F95	43076	A844	55302 56848	D806 DE10	55301 56340	D805 DC14	55303 56339	D807 DC13	55300 56726	D804 DD96
Numeric character reference	ཅ	ཅ	ྕ	ྕ	ꡄ	ꡄ	𑨐	𑨐	𑐔	𑐔	𑰓	𑰓	𑆖	𑆖

Character information

Preview	𑘓		𑦳		𑩡		ꠌ		𑵻
Unicode name	MODI LETTER CA		NANDINAGARI LETTER CA		SOYOMBO LETTER CA		SYLOTI NAGRI LETTER CO		GUNJALA GONDI LETTER CA		KAITHI LETTER CA
Encodings	decimal	hex	dec	hex	dec	hex	dec	hex	dec	hex	dec	hex
Unicode	71187	U+11613	72115	U+119B3	72289	U+11A61	43020	U+A80C	73083	U+11D7B	69778	U+11092
UTF-8	240 145 152 147	F0 91 98 93	240 145 166 179	F0 91 A6 B3	240 145 169 161	F0 91 A9 A1	234 160 140	EA A0 8C	240 145 181 187	F0 91 B5 BB	240 145 130 146	F0 91 82 92
UTF-16	55301 56851	D805 DE13	55302 56755	D806 DDB3	55302 56929	D806 DE61	43020	A80C	55303 56699	D807 DD7B	55300 56466	D804 DC92
Numeric character reference	𑘓	𑘓	𑦳	𑦳	𑩡	𑩡	ꠌ	ꠌ	𑵻	𑵻	𑂒	𑂒

Character information

Preview	𑒔		ᰆ				ꯆ		𑱶
Unicode name	TIRHUTA LETTER CA		LEPCHA LETTER CA		LIMBU LETTER CA		MEETEI MAYEK LETTER CHIL		MARCHEN LETTER CA
Encodings	decimal	hex	dec	hex	dec	hex	dec	hex	dec	hex
Unicode	70804	U+11494	7174	U+1C06	6406	U+1906	43974	U+ABC6	72822	U+11C76
UTF-8	240 145 146 148	F0 91 92 94	225 176 134	E1 B0 86	225 164 134	E1 A4 86	234 175 134	EA AF 86	240 145 177 182	F0 91 B1 B6
UTF-16	55301 56468	D805 DC94	7174	1C06	6406	1906	43974	ABC6	55303 56438	D807 DC76
Numeric character reference	𑒔	𑒔	ᰆ	ᰆ	ᤆ	ᤆ	ꯆ	ꯆ	𑱶	𑱶

See also

• Kaph

References

^note Conjuncts are identified by IAST transliteration, except aspirated consonants are indicated with a superscript "h" to distinguish from an unaspirated cononant + Ha, and the use of the IPA "ŋ" and "ʃ" instead of the less dinstinctive "ṅ" and "ś".

Further reading

• Kurt Elfering: Die Mathematik des Aryabhata I. Text, Übersetzung aus dem Sanskrit und Kommentar. Wilhelm Fink Verlag, München, 1975, ISBN 3-7705-1326-6
• Georges Ifrah: The Universal History of Numbers. From Prehistory to the Invention of the Computer. John Wiley & Sons, New York, 2000, ISBN 0-471-39340-1.
• B. L. van der Waerden: Erwachende Wissenschaft. Ägyptische, babylonische und griechische Mathematik. Birkhäuser-Verlag, Basel Stuttgart, 1966, ISBN 3-7643-0399-9
• Fleet, J. F. (January 1911). "Aryabhata's System of Expressing Numbers". Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland. 43: 109–126. doi:10.1017/S0035869X00040995. ISSN 0035-869X. JSTOR 25189823.
• Fleet, J. F. (1911). "Aryabhata's System of Expressing Numbers". The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland. 43: 109–126. doi:10.1017/S0035869X00040995. JSTOR 25189823.