Investment: Companies, governments and households have been investing increasing amounts in decarbonisation, including renewable energy, electric vehicles and associated infrastructure, energy storage, energy-efficient heating systems, carbon capture and storage, and hydrogen energy.[1][2]
Cost: With increasingly widespread implementation of renewable energy sources, the levelised cost of energy has declined, most notably for energy generated by solar panels.[3][4]

Fossil fuel phase-out is the gradual reduction of the use and production of fossil fuels to zero, to reduce deaths and illness from air pollution, limit climate change, and strengthen energy independence. It is part of the ongoing renewable energy transition, but is being hindered by fossil fuel subsidies.

Although many countries are shutting down coal-fired power stations,[5][6][7] electricity generation is not moving off coal fast enough to meet climate goals.[8] Many countries have set dates to stop selling petrol and diesel cars and trucks, but a timetable to stop burning fossil gas has not yet been agreed.[9]

Current efforts in fossil fuel phase-out involve replacing fossil fuels with sustainable energy sources in sectors such as transport and heating. Alternatives to fossil fuels include electrification, green hydrogen and biofuel. Phase-out policies include both demand-side and supply-side measures.[10] Whereas demand-side approaches seek to reduce fossil-fuel consumption, supply-side initiatives seek to constrain production to accelerate the pace of energy transition and reduction in emissions. It has been suggested that laws should be passed to make fossil fuel companies bury the same amount of carbon as they emit.[11] The International Energy Agency estimates that in order to achieve carbon neutrality by the middle of the century, global investments in renewable energy must treble by 2030, reaching over $4 trillion annually.[12][13]

Scope

While crude oil and natural gas are also being phased out in chemical processes (e.g. production of new building blocks for plastics) as the circular economy and biobased economy (e.g. bioplastics) are being developed[14] to reduce plastic pollution, the fossil fuel phase out specifically aims to end the burning of fossil fuels and the consequent production of greenhouse gases. Therefore, attempts to reduce the use of oil and gas in the plastic industry do not form part of fossil fuel phase-out or reduction plans.

Types of fossil fuels

Coal

The annual amount of coal plant capacity being retired increased into the mid-2010s.[15] However, the rate of retirement has since stalled,[15] and global coal phase-out is not yet compatible with the goals of the Paris Climate Agreement.[16]
In parallel with retirement of some coal plant capacity, other coal plants are still being added, though the annual amount of added capacity has been declining since the 2010s.[17]

To meet the Paris Agreement target of keeping global warming to well below 2 °C (3.6 °F), coal use needs to halve from 2020 to 2030.[18] However as of 2017, coal supplied over a quarter of the world's primary energy[19] and about 40% of the greenhouse gas emissions from fossil fuels.[20] Phasing out coal has short-term health and environmental benefits which exceed the costs,[21] and without it the 2 °C target in the Paris Agreement cannot be met;[22] but some countries still favour coal,[23] and there is much disagreement about how quickly it should be phased out.[24][25]

As of 2018, 30 countries and many sub-national governments and businesses[26] had become members of the Powering Past Coal Alliance, each making a declaration to advance the transition away from unabated (abated means with carbon capture and storage (CCS), but almost all power plants are unabated as CCS is so expensive) coal power generation.[27] As of 2019, however, the countries which use the most coal have not joined, and some countries continue to build and finance new coal-fired power stations. A just transition from coal is supported by the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development.[28]

In 2019 the UN Secretary General said that countries should stop building new coal power plants from 2020 or face 'total disaster'.[29]

In 2020, although China built some plants, globally more coal power was retired than built: the UN Secretary General has said that OECD countries should stop generating electricity from coal by 2030 and the rest of the world by 2040.[30]

Oil

The 2010 Deepwater Horizon oil spill discharges 4.9 million barrels (780,000 m3)

Crude oil is refined into fuel oil, diesel and petrol. The refined products are primarily for transportation by conventional cars, trucks, trains, planes and ships. Popular alternatives are human-powered transport, public transport, electric vehicles, and biofuels.[31]

Natural gas

Natural gas well in Germany

Natural gas is widely used to generate electricity and has an emission intensity of about 500g/kWh. Heating is also a major source of carbon dioxide emissions. Leaks are also a large source of atmospheric methane.

In some countries natural gas is being used as a temporary "bridge fuel" to replace coal, in turn to be replaced by renewable sources or a hydrogen economy.[32] However this "bridge fuel" may significantly extend the use of fossil fuel or strand assets, such as gas-fired power plants built in the 2020s, as the average plant life is 35 years.[33] Although natural gas assets are likely to be stranded later than oil and coal assets, perhaps not until 2050, some investors are concerned by reputational risk.[34]

As of 2019, natural gas phase-out progressed in some regions, for example with increasing use of hydrogen by the European Network of Transmission System Operators for Gas (ENTSOG)[35] and changes to building regulations to reduce the use of gas heating.[36][37]

Reasons

Commonly cited reasons for phasing out fossil fuels are to:

Health

Most of the millions[40] of premature deaths from air pollution are due to fossil fuels.[41] Pollution may be indoors e.g. from heating and cooking, or outdoors from vehicle exhaust. One estimate is that the proportion is 65% and the number 3.5 million each year.[42] According to Professor Sir Andy Haines at the London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine the health benefits of phasing out fossil fuels measured in money (estimated by economists using the value of life for each country) are substantially more than the cost of achieving the 2-degree C goal of the Paris Agreement.[43]

Climate change mitigation

Fossil-fuel phase-out is the largest part of limiting global warming as fossil fuels account for over 70% of greenhouse gas emissions.[44] In 2020, the International Energy Agency said that to meet the goals of the Paris Agreement, the phase-out of fossil fuels would need to "move four times faster".[45] To achieve the goal of limiting global warming to 1.5 °C above pre-industrial levels, the vast majority of fossil fuel reserves owned by countries and companies as of 2021 would have to remain in the ground.[46][47]

Employment

The renewable energy transition can create jobs through the construction of new power plants and the manufacturing of the equipment that they need, as was seen in the case of Germany and the wind power industry.[48]

This can also be seen in the case of France and the nuclear power industry. France receives about 75% of its electricity from nuclear energy[49] and hundreds of jobs have been created for developing nuclear technology, construction workers, engineers, and radiation protection specialists.[50]

Energy independence

Countries which lack fossil fuel deposits, particularly coal but also petroleum and natural gas, often cite energy independence in their shift away from fossil fuels.

In Switzerland the decision to electrify virtually the entire railway network was taken in light of the two world wars (during which Switzerland was neutral) when coal imports became increasingly difficult. As Switzerland has ample hydropower resources, electric trains (as opposed to those driven by steam locomotives or diesel) could be run on domestic energy resources, reducing the need for coal imports.[51][52]

The 1973 oil crisis also led to a shift in energy policy in many places to become (more) independent of fossil fuel imports. In France the government announced an ambitious plan to expand nuclear power which by the end of the 1980s had shifted France's electricity sector almost entirely away from coal gas and oil and towards nuclear power.[53][54]

The trend towards encouraging cycling in the Netherlands[55][56] and Denmark[57][58] also coincided with the 1973 oil crisis and aimed in part at reducing the need for oil imports in the transportation sector.

Phase-out of fossil fuel subsidies

Significant fossil fuel subsidies are present in many countries.[59] Fossil fuel subsidies in 2019 for consumption totalled USD 320 billion[60] spread over many countries.[61] As of 2019 governments subsidise fossil fuels by about $500 billion per year: however using an unconventional definition of subsidy which includes failing to price greenhouse gas emissions, the International Monetary Fund estimated that fossil fuel subsidies were $5.2 trillion in 2017, which was 6.4% of global GDP.[62] Some fossil fuel companies lobby governments.[63]

Phasing out fossil fuel subsidies is very important.[64] It must however be done carefully to avoid protests[65] and making poor people poorer.[66] In most cases, however, low fossil fuel prices benefit wealthier households more than poorer households. So to help poor and vulnerable people, other measures than fossil fuel subsidies would be more targeted.[67] This could in turn increase public support for subsidy reform.[68]

Economic theory indicates that the optimal policy would be to remove coal mining and burning subsidies and replace them with optimal taxes. Global studies indicate that even without introducing taxes, subsidy and trade barrier removal at a sectoral level would improve efficiency and reduce environmental damage.[69]: 568  Removal of these subsidies would substantially reduce GHG emissions and create jobs in renewable energy.[70] The IMF estimated in 2023 that removal of fossil fuel subsidies would limit global heating to the Paris goal of substantially less than 2 degrees.[71]

The actual effects of removing fossil fuel subsidies would depend heavily on the type of subsidy removed and the availability and economics of other energy sources.[69] There is also the issue of carbon leakage, where removal of a subsidy to an energy-intensive industry could lead to a shift in production to another country with less regulation, and thus to a net increase in global emissions.

In developed countries, energy costs are low and heavily subsidised, whereas in developing countries, the poor pay high costs for low-quality services.[72]

A plan has been put forward to power 100% of the world's energy with wind, hydroelectric, and solar power by the year 2030.[73][74] It recommends transfer of energy subsidies from fossil fuel to renewable, and a price on carbon reflecting its cost for flood, cyclone, hurricane, drought, and related extreme weather expenses.

Excluding subsidies the levelised cost of electricity from new large-scale solar power in India and China has been below existing coal-fired power stations since 2021.[75]

A study by Rice University Center for Energy Studies suggested the following steps for countries:[39]

  1. Countries should commit to a specific time frame for a full phaseout of implicit and explicit fossil fuel subsidies.
  2. Clarify the language on subsidy reform to remove ambiguous terminology.
  3. Seek formal legislation in affected countries that codifies reform pathways and reduces opportunities for backsliding.
  4. Publish transparent formulas for market-linked pricing, and adhere to a regular schedule for price adjustments.
  5. Phase-in full reforms in a sequence of gradual steps. Increasing prices gradually but on a defined schedule signals intent to consumers while allowing time to invest in energy efficiency to partially offset the increases.
  6. Aspire to account for externalities over time by imposing a fee or tax on fossil energy products and services, and eliminating preferences for fossil fuels that remain embedded in the tax code.
  7. Use direct cash transfers to maintain benefits for poor segments of society rather than preserving subsidised prices for vulnerable socioeconomic groups.
  8. Launch a comprehensive public communications campaign.
  9. Any remaining fossil fuel subsidies should be clearly budgeted at full international prices and paid for by the national treasury.
  10. Document price and emissions changes with reporting requirements.

Studies about fossil fuel phase-out

Reduction in fossil fuel capacity compared to renewables
Renewable energy sources, especially solar photovoltaic and wind power, are providing an increasing share of power capacity.[76]
In 2023, electricity generation from wind and solar sources was projected to exceed 30% by 2030, as fossil fuels' use continues to decline.[77]
The countries most reliant on fossil fuels for electricity vary widely on how great a percentage of that electricity is generated from renewables, leaving wide variation in renewables' growth potential.[78]

In 2015, Greenpeace and Climate Action Network Europe released a report highlighting the need for an active phase-out of coal-fired generation across Europe. Their analysis derived from a database of 280 coal plants and included emissions data from official EU registries.[79]

A 2016 report by Oil Change International, concludes that the carbon emissions embedded in the coal, oil, and gas in currently working mines and fields, assuming that these run to the end of their working lifetimes, will take the world to just beyond the 2 °C limit contained in the 2015 Paris Agreement and even further from the 1.5 °C goal.[80][81][82] The report observes that "one of the most powerful climate policy levers is also the simplest: stop digging for more fossil fuels".[82]: 5 

In 2016, the Overseas Development Institute (ODI) and 11 other NGOs released a report on the impact of building new coal-fired power plants in countries where a significant proportion of the population lacks access to electricity. The report concludes that, on the whole, building coal-fired power plants does little to help the poor and may make them poorer. Moreover, wind and solar generation are beginning to challenge coal on cost.[83][84][85]

A 2018 study in Nature Energy, suggests that 10 countries in Europe could completely phase out coal-fired electricity generation with their current infrastructure, whilst the United States and Russia could phase out at least 30%.[86]

In 2020, the Fossil Fuel Cuts Database provided the first global account of supply-side initiatives to constrain fossil fuel production.[87] The latest update of the database recorded 1967 initiatives implemented between 1988 and October 2021 in 110 countries across seven major types of supply-side approaches (Divestment, n=1201; Blockades, n= 374; Litigation, n= 192; Moratoria and Bans, n= 146; Production subsidies removal, n=31; Carbon tax on fossil fuel production, n=16; Emissions Trading Schemes, n= 7).

The GeGaLo index of geopolitical gains and losses assesses how the geopolitical position of 156 countries may change if the world fully transitions to renewable energy resources. Former fossil fuel exporters are expected to lose power, while the positions of former fossil fuel importers and countries rich in renewable energy resources is expected to strengthen.[88]

Multiple decarbonisation plans that get to zero CO2 emissions have been presented.

A Guardian investigation showed in 2022, that big fossil fuel firms continue to plan huge investments in new fossil fuel production projects that would drive the climate past internationally agreed temperature limits.[89]

Renewable energy potentials

In June 2021 Dr Sven Teske and Dr Sarah Niklas from the Institute for Sustainable Futures, University of Technology Sydney found that "existing coal, oil and gas production puts the world on course to overshoot Paris climate targets." In co-operation with the Fossil Fuel Non-Proliferation Treaty Initiative they published a report entitled, Fossil Fuel Exit Strategy: An orderly wind down of coal, oil, and gas to meet the Paris Agreement. It analyses global renewable energy potential, and finds that "every region on Earth can replace fossil fuels with renewable energy to keep warming below 1.5°C and provide reliable energy access to all."[90]

Assessment of extraction prevention responsibilities

In September 2021, the first scientific assessment of the minimum amount of fossil fuels that would need to be secured from extraction per region as well as globally, to allow for a 50% probability of limiting global warming by 2050 to 1.5 °C was provided.[91][92]

Challenges of fossil fuel phase-out

Net income of the global oil and gas industry reached a record US$4 trillion in 2022.[93]
After recovering from the COVID-19 pandemic, energy company profits increased with greater revenues from higher fuel prices resulting from the Russian invasion of Ukraine, falling debt levels, tax write-downs of projects shut down in Russia, and backing off from earlier plans to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.[94] Record profits sparked public calls for windfall taxes.[94]

The phase-out of fossil fuels involves many challenges, and one of them is the reliance that the world currently has on them. In 2014, fossil fuels provided over 80% of the primary energy consumption of the world.[95]

Fossil fuel phase-out may lead to an increment in electricity prices, because of the new investments needed to replace their share in the electricity mix with alternative energy sources.[96]

Another impact of a phase-out of fossil fuels is in employment. In the case of employment in the fossil fuel industry, a phase-out is logically undesired, therefore, people employed in the industry will usually oppose any measures that put their industries under scrutiny.[48] Endre Tvinnereim and Elisabeth Ivarsflaten studied the relationship between employment in the fossil fuel industry with the support to climate change policies. They proposed that one opportunity for displaced drilling employments in the fossil fuel industry could be in the geothermal energy industry. This was suggested as a result of their conclusion: people and companies in the fossil fuel industry will likely oppose measures that endanger their employment, unless they have other stronger alternatives.[97] This can be extrapolated to political interests, that can push against the phase-out of fossil fuels initiative.[98] One example is how the vote of United States Congress members is related to the preeminence of fossil fuel industries in their respective states.[99]

Other challenges include ensuring sustainable recycling, sourcing of the required materials, disruptions of existing power structures, managing variable renewable energy, developing optimal national transition policies, transforming transportation infrastructure and responsibilities of fossil fuel extraction prevention. There is active research and development on such issues.[100][101][102]

According to the people present at COP27 in Egypt, Saudi Arabian representatives pushed to block a call for the world to burn less oil. After objections from Saudi Arabia and a few other oil producers, summit's final statement failed to include a call for nations to phase out fossil fuels. In March 2022, at a United Nations meeting with climate scientists, Saudi Arabia, together with Russia, pushed to delete a reference to "human-induced climate change" from an official document, disputing the scientifically established fact that the burning of fossil fuels by humans is the main driver of the climate crisis.[103]

Major initiatives and legislation to phase out fossil fuels

China

China has pledged to become carbon neutral by 2060, which would need a just transition for over 3 million workers in the coal-mining and power industry.[104] It is not yet clear whether China aims to phase-out all fossil fuel use by that date or whether a small proportion will still be in use with the carbon captured and stored.[104] In 2021, coal mining was ordered to run at maximum capacity.[105]

EU

At the end of 2019, the European Union launched its European Green Deal. It included:

It also leans on Horizon Europe, to play a pivotal role in leveraging national public and private investments. Through partnerships with industry and member States, it will support research and innovation on transport technologies, including batteries, clean hydrogen, low-carbon steel making, circular bio-based sectors and the built environment.[109]

The European Investment Bank contributed over €81 billion to help the energy industry between 2017 and 2022, in line with EU energy policy. This comprised nearly €76 billion for initiatives related to power grids, energy efficiency, and renewable energy throughout Europe and other parts of the world.[12]

India

India is confident of exceeding Paris COP commitments.[110] In the Paris Agreement, India has committed to an Intended Nationally Determined Contributions target of achieving 40% of its total electricity generation from non-fossil fuel sources by 2030.[111]

Japan

Japan has pledged to become carbon neutral by 2050.[112]

United Kingdom

The UK is legally committed to be carbon neutral by 2050, and moving away from the heating of homes by natural gas is likely to be the most difficult part of the country's fossil fuel phase out.[113] Alternative green recovery legislative plans have been proposed by multiple groups to phase out fossil fuels as fast as technology allows.[114]

Legislation and initiatives to phase out coal

Phase-out of fossil fuel power plants

Bloomberg NEF reported that in 2022, global energy transition investment equaled fossil fuels investment for the first time.[115]
In 2020, renewables overtook fossil fuels as the European Union's main source of electricity for the first time.[116]

Alternative energy refers to any source of energy that can substitute the role of fossil fuels. Renewable energy, or energy that is harnessed from renewable sources, is an alternative energy. However, alternative energy can refer to non-renewable sources as well, like nuclear energy. Between the alternative sources of energy are: solar energy, hydroelectricity, marine energy, wind energy, geothermal energy, biofuels, ethanol and hydrogen.

Energy efficiency is complementary to the use of alternative energy sources, when phasing-out fossil fuels.

Renewable energy

These paragraphs are an excerpt from Renewable energy.[edit]

Renewable energy is energy from renewable resources that are naturally replenished on a human timescale. Renewable resources include sunlight, wind, the movement of water, and geothermal heat.[117][118] Although most renewable energy sources are sustainable, some are not. For example, some biomass sources are considered unsustainable at current rates of exploitation.[119][120] Renewable energy is often used for electricity generation, heating and cooling. Renewable energy projects are typically large-scale, but they are also suited to rural and remote areas and developing countries, where energy is often crucial in human development.[121][122]

Renewable energy is often deployed together with further electrification, which has several benefits: electricity can move heat or objects efficiently, and is clean at the point of consumption.[123][124] From 2011 to 2021, renewable energy grew from 20% to 28% of global electricity supply. Use of fossil energy shrank from 68% to 62%, and nuclear from 12% to 10%. The share of hydropower decreased from 16% to 15% while power from sun and wind increased from 2% to 10%. Biomass and geothermal energy grew from 2% to 3%. There are 3,146 gigawatts installed in 135 countries, while 156 countries have laws regulating the renewable energy sector.[125] [126] In 2021, China accounted for almost half of the global increase in renewable electricity.[127]

Globally there are over 10 million jobs associated with the renewable energy industries, with solar photovoltaics being the largest renewable employer.[128] Renewable energy systems are rapidly becoming more efficient and cheaper and their share of total energy consumption is increasing,[129] with a large majority of worldwide newly installed electricity capacity being renewable.[130] In most countries, photovoltaic solar or onshore wind are the cheapest new-build electricity.[131]

Many nations around the world already have renewable energy contributing more than 20% of their total energy supply, with some generating over half their electricity from renewables.[132] A few countries generate all their electricity using renewable energy.[133] National renewable energy markets are projected to continue to grow strongly in the 2020s and beyond.[134] According to the IEA, to achieve net zero emissions by 2050, 90% of global electricity generation will need to be produced from renewable sources.[135] Some studies have shown that a global transition to 100% renewable energy across all sectors – power, heat, transport and industry – is feasible and economically viable.[136][137][138]

Renewable energy resources exist over wide geographical areas, in contrast to fossil fuels, which are concentrated in a limited number of countries. Deployment of renewable energy and energy efficiency technologies is resulting in significant energy security, climate change mitigation, and economic benefits.[139] However renewables are being hindered by hundreds of billions of dollars of fossil fuel subsidies.[140] In international public opinion surveys there is strong support for renewables such as solar power and wind power.[141][142] In 2022 the International Energy Agency asked countries to solve policy, regulatory, permitting and financing obstacles to adding more renewables, to have a better chance of reaching net zero carbon emissions by 2050.[143]

Hydroelectricity

Chief Joseph Dam near Bridgeport, Washington, US, is a major run-of-the-river station without a sizeable reservoir.

In 2015, hydroelectric energy generated 16.6% of the world's total electricity and 70% of all renewable electricity.[144] In Europe and North America environmental concerns around land flooded by large reservoirs ended 30 years of dam construction in the 1990s. Since then large dams and reservoirs continue to be built in countries like China, Brazil and India. Run-of-the-river hydroelectricity and small hydro have become popular alternatives to conventional dams that may create reservoirs in environmentally sensitive areas.

Wind power

These paragraphs are an excerpt from Wind power.[edit]

Wind power is the use of wind energy to generate useful work. Historically, wind power was used by sails, windmills and windpumps, but today it is mostly used to generate electricity. This article deals only with wind power for electricity generation. Today, wind power is generated almost completely with wind turbines, generally grouped into wind farms and connected to the electrical grid.

In 2022, wind supplied over 2000 TWh of electricity, which was over 7% of world electricity[145]: 58  and about 2% of world energy.[146][147] With about 100 GW added during 2021, mostly in China and the United States, global installed wind power capacity exceeded 800 GW.[148][147][149] To help meet the Paris Agreement goals to limit climate change, analysts say it should expand much faster - by over 1% of electricity generation per year.[150]

Wind power is considered a sustainable, renewable energy source, and has a much smaller impact on the environment compared to burning fossil fuels. Wind power is variable, so it needs energy storage or other dispatchable generation energy sources to attain a reliable supply of electricity. Land-based (onshore) wind farms have a greater visual impact on the landscape than most other power stations per energy produced.[151][152] Wind farms sited offshore have less visual impact and have higher capacity factors, although they are generally more expensive.[148] Offshore wind power currently has a share of about 10% of new installations.[153]

Wind power is one of the lowest-cost electricity sources per unit of energy produced. In many locations, new onshore wind farms are cheaper than new coal or gas plants.[154]

Regions in the higher northern and southern latitudes have the highest potential for wind power.[155] In most regions, wind power generation is higher in nighttime, and in winter when solar power output is low. For this reason, combinations of wind and solar power are suitable in many countries.[156]

Solar

In 2017, solar power provided 1.7% of total worldwide electricity production, growing at 35% per annum.[157] By 2020 the solar contribution to global final energy consumption is expected to exceed 1%.[158]

Solar photovoltaics

The 71.8 MW Lieberose Photovoltaic Park in Germany

Solar photovoltaic cells convert sunlight into electricity and many solar photovoltaic power stations have been built. The size of these stations has increased progressively over the last decade with frequent new capacity records. Many of these plants are integrated with agriculture and some use innovative tracking systems that follow the sun's daily path across the sky to generate more electricity than conventional fixed-mounted systems. Solar power plants have no fuel costs or emissions during operation.

Concentrated solar power

The 150 MW Andasol solar power station is a commercial parabolic trough solar thermal power plant, located in Spain. The Andasol plant uses tanks of molten salt to store solar energy so that it can continue generating electricity even when the sun isn't shining.[159]

Concentrating Solar Power (CSP) systems use lenses or mirrors and tracking systems to focus a large area of sunlight into a small beam. The concentrated heat is then used as a heat source for a conventional power plant. A wide range of concentrating technologies exists; the most developed are the parabolic trough, the Compact linear Fresnel reflector, the Stirling dish and the solar power tower. Various techniques are used to track the Sun and focus light. In all of these systems a working fluid is heated by the concentrated sunlight, and is then used for power generation or energy storage.[160]

Nuclear energy

The 2014 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) report identifies nuclear energy as one of the technologies that can provide electricity with less than 5% of the lifecycle greenhouse gas emissions of coal power.[161] There are more than 60 nuclear reactors shown as under construction in the list of Nuclear power by country with China leading at 23. Globally, more nuclear power reactors have closed than opened in recent years but overall capacity has increased.[162] China has stated its plans to double nuclear generation by 2030. India also plans to greatly increase its nuclear power. The Manhattan 2 Project has presented a report that describes how to significantly increase nuclear power via factory automation.

Several countries have enacted laws to cease construction on new nuclear power stations. Several European countries have debated nuclear phase-outs and others have completely shut down some reactors. Three nuclear accidents have influenced the slowdown of nuclear power: the 1979 Three Mile Island accident in the United States, the 1986 Chernobyl disaster in the USSR, and the 2011 Fukushima nuclear disaster in Japan. Following the March 2011 Fukushima nuclear disaster, Germany has permanently shut down eight of its 17 reactors and pledged to close the rest by the end of 2022.[163] Italy voted overwhelmingly to keep their country non-nuclear.[164] Switzerland and Spain have banned the construction of new reactors.[165] Japan's prime minister has called for a dramatic reduction in Japan's reliance on nuclear power.[166] Taiwan's president did the same. Shinzō Abe, prime minister of Japan since December 2012, announced a plan to restart some of the 54 Japanese nuclear power plants and to continue some nuclear reactors under construction.

As of 2016, countries such as Australia, Austria, Denmark, Greece, Malaysia, New Zealand and Norway have no nuclear power stations and remain opposed to nuclear power.[167][168] Germany, Italy, Spain and Switzerland are phasing-out their nuclear power.[162][168][169][170] Despite this, most pathways for spurring a fossil fuel phase-out that keeps pace with global electricity demands include the expansion of nuclear power, according to the IPCC.[171] Likewise, the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe has stated that global climate objectives would likely not be met without nuclear expansion.[172]

Cost overruns, construction delays, the threat of catastrophic accidents, and regulatory hurdles often make nuclear power plant expansion practically infeasible. Some companies and organisations have proposed plans aimed at mitigating the cost, duration, and risk of nuclear power plant construction. NuScale Power, for example, has received regulatory approval from the Nuclear Regulatory Commission for a light-water reactor that would theoretically limit the risk of accidents and could be manufactured for less than traditional nuclear plants.[173][174] The Energy Impact Center's OPEN100, a platform that provides open-source blueprints for the construction of a nuclear plant with a 100-megawatt pressurised water reactor, claims that its model could be built in as little as two years for $300 million. In both plans, the ability to mass manufacture small modular reactors would theoretically cut down on construction time.[173][175]

Biomass

Biomass is biological material from living, or recently living organisms, most often referring to plants or plant-derived materials.[176] As a renewable energy source, biomass can either be used directly, or indirectly – once or converted into another type of energy product such as biofuel. Biomass can be converted to energy in three ways: thermal conversion, chemical conversion, and biochemical conversion.

Using biomass as a fuel produces air pollution in the form of carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, NOx (nitrogen oxides), VOCs (volatile organic compounds), particulates and other pollutants at levels above those from traditional fuel sources such as coal or natural gas in some cases (such as with indoor heating and cooking).[177][178][179] Use of wood biomass as a fuel can also produce fewer particulate and other pollutants than open burning as seen in wildfires or direct heat applications.[180] Black carbon – a pollutant created by combustion of fossil fuels, biofuels, and biomass – is possibly the second largest contributor to global warming.[181]: 56–57  In 2009 a Swedish study of the giant brown haze that periodically covers large areas in South Asia determined that it had been principally produced by biomass burning, and to a lesser extent by fossil fuel burning.[182] Denmark has increased the use of biomass and garbage,[183] and decreased the use of coal.[184]

Energy efficiency

Past costs of producing renewable energy declined significantly,[185] with 62% of total renewable power generation added in 2020 having lower costs than the cheapest new fossil fuel option.[186]
"Learning curves": Trend of costs and deployment over time, with steeper lines showing greater cost reductions as deployment progresses.[187] With increased deployment, renewables benefit from learning curves and economies of scale.[188]

Moving away from fossil fuels will require changes not only in the way energy is supplied, but in the way it is used, and reducing the amount of energy required to deliver various goods or services is essential. Opportunities for improvement on the demand side of the energy equation are as rich and diverse as those on the supply side, and often offer significant economic benefits.[189]

A sustainable energy economy requires commitments to both renewables and efficiency. Renewable energy and energy efficiency are said to be the "twin pillars" of sustainable energy policy. The American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy has explained that both resources must be developed to stabilise and reduce carbon dioxide emissions:[190]

Efficiency is essential to slowing the energy demand growth so that rising clean energy supplies can make deep cuts in fossil fuel use. If energy use grows too fast, renewable energy development will chase a receding target. Likewise, unless clean energy supplies come online rapidly, slowing demand growth will only begin to reduce total emissions; reducing the carbon content of energy sources is also needed.[190]

The IEA has stated that renewable energy and energy efficiency policies are complementary tools for the development of a sustainable energy future, and should be developed together instead of being developed in isolation.[191]

Phase-out of fossil fuel vehicles

Sales of electric vehicles (EVs) indicate a trend away from gas-powered vehicles that generate greenhouse gases.[192]

Many countries and cities have introduced bans on the sales of new internal combustion engine vehicles, requiring all new cars to be electric vehicles or otherwise powered by clean, non-emitting sources.[193][194] Such bans include the United Kingdom by 2035[195] and Norway by 2025. Many transit authorities are working to purchase only electric buses while also restricting use of ICE vehicles in the city center to limit air pollution. Many US states have a zero-emissions vehicle mandate, incrementally requiring a certain per cent of cars sold to be electric. The German term de: Verkehrswende ("traffic transition" analogous to "Energiewende", energetic transition) calls for a shift from combustion powered road transport to bicycles, walking and rail transport and the replacement of remaining road vehicles with electric traction.

Biofuels

Biofuels, in the form of liquid fuels derived from plant materials, are entering the market. However, many of the biofuels that are currently being supplied have been criticised for their adverse impacts on the natural environment, food security, and land use.[196][197]

Opinion

Those corporations that continue to invest in new fossil fuel exploration, new fossil fuel exploitation, are really in flagrant breach of their fiduciary duty because the science is abundantly clear that this is something we can no longer do.

— Christiana Figueres, executive secretary of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change[198]
Protest at the Legislative Building in Olympia, Washington. Ted Nation, a long-time environmental activist beside protest sign.

Polls

In 2023, Pew commissioned a poll that estimated 31% of Americans were ready to phase out the use of oil, coal and natural gas completely, 32% wanted to phase out fossil fuel eventually and 35% said they never want fossil fuel to be phased out.[199]

Prominent individuals supporting a coal moratorium

If you're a young person looking at the future of this planet and looking at what is being done right now, and not done, I believe we have reached the stage where it is time for civil disobedience to prevent the construction of new coal plants that do not have carbon capture and sequestration.

Prominent individuals supporting a coal phase-out

Mitigation of peak oil

The standard Hubbert curve, plotting crude oil production of a region over time.
World energy consumption, 1970–2025. Source: International Energy Outlook 2004.

The mitigation of peak oil is the attempt to delay the date and minimize the social and economic effects of peak oil by reducing the consumption of and reliance on petroleum. By reducing petroleum consumption, mitigation efforts seek to favorably change the shape of the Hubbert curve, which is the graph of real oil production over time predicted by Hubbert peak theory. The peak of this curve is known as peak oil, and by changing the shape of the curve, the timing of the peak in oil production is affected. An analysis by the author of the Hirsch report showed that while the shape of the oil production curve can be affected by mitigation efforts, mitigation efforts are also affected by the shape of Hubbert curve.[202]

For the most part, mitigation involves fuel conservation, and the use of alternative and renewable energy sources. The development of unconventional oil resources can extend the supply of petroleum,[203] but does not reduce consumption.

Historically, world oil consumption data show that mitigation efforts during the 1973 and 1979 oil shocks lowered oil consumption, while general recessions since the 1970s have had no effect on curbing the oil consumption until 2007. In the United States, oil consumption declines in reaction to high prices.[204][205]

Key questions for mitigation are the viability of methods, the roles of government and private sector and how early these solutions are implemented.[206][207] The responses to such questions and steps taken towards mitigation may determine whether or not the lifestyle of a society can be maintained, and may affect the population capacity of the planet.

Alternative energy

The most effective method of mitigating peak oil is to use renewable or alternative energy sources in place of petroleum.

Transportation fuel use

Because most oil is consumed for transportation[208] most mitigation discussions revolve around transportation issues.

Fuel substitution

While there is some interchangeability, the alternative energy sources available tend to depend on whether the fuel is being used in static or mobile applications.

Biofuel
This section is an excerpt from Biofuel.[edit]
A sample of biodiesel

Biofuel is a fuel that is produced over a short period from biomass, rather than by the very slow natural processes involved in the formation of fossil fuels, such as oil. Biofuel can be produced from plants or agricultural, domestic, or industrial biowaste.[209] Biofuels are mostly used for transportation but can also be used for heating and electricity.[210]: 173 [211] Biofuels (and bioenergy in general) are regarded as a renewable energy source.[212]: 11  However, the use of biofuel has been controversial because of the several disadvantages associated with the use of it. These include for example (and this varies on a case-by-case basis): the "food vs fuel" debate, biofuel production methods being sustainable or not, leading to deforestation and loss of biodiversity or not.

In general, biofuels emit fewer greenhouse gas emissions when burned in an engine and are generally considered carbon-neutral fuels as the carbon emitted has been captured from the atmosphere by the crops used in production.[213] However, life-cycle assessments of biofuels have shown large emissions associated with the potential land-use change required to produce additional biofuel feedstocks.[214][215] Estimates about the climate impact from biofuels vary widely based on the methodology and exact situation examined.[214] Therefore, the climate change mitigation potential of biofuel varies considerably: in some scenarios, emission levels are comparable to fossil fuels and in other scenarios the biofuel emissions result in negative emissions.

The two most common types of biofuel are bioethanol and biodiesel. Brazil is the largest producer of bioethanol, while the EU is the largest producer of biodiesel. The energy content in the global production of bioethanol and biodiesel is 2.2 and 1.8 EJ per year, respectively.[216] Demand for aviation biofuel is forecast to increase.[217][218]

Bioethanol is an alcohol made by fermentation, mostly from carbohydrates produced in sugar or starch crops such as maize, sugarcane, or sweet sorghum. Cellulosic biomass, derived from non-food sources, such as trees and grasses, is also being developed as a feedstock for ethanol production. Ethanol can be used as a fuel for vehicles in its pure form (E100), but it is usually used as a gasoline additive to increase octane ratings and improve vehicle emissions.

Biodiesel is produced from oils or fats using transesterification. It can be used as a fuel for vehicles in its pure form (B100), but it is usually used as a diesel additive to reduce levels of particulates, carbon monoxide, and hydrocarbons from diesel-powered vehicles.[219]
Static installations

Although oil and diesel still generates a small share of global electricity, some Middle East oil producing countries are replacing that with solar power, as it is more profitable to export the oil.[220]

Mobile applications

Due to its high energy density and ease of handling, oil has a unique role as a transportation fuel. There are, however, a number of possible alternatives. Among the biofuels the use of bioethanol and biodiesel is already established to some extent in some countries.

The use of hydrogen fuel is another alternative under development in various countries, alongside, hydrogen vehicles[221] though hydrogen is actually an energy storage medium, not a primary energy source, and consequently the use of a non-petroleum source would be required to extract the hydrogen for use. Though hydrogen is currently outperformed in terms of cost and efficiency by battery powered vehicles[222], there are applications where it would come in useful. Short haul ferries and very cold climates are two examples. Hydrogen fuel cells are about a third as efficient as batteries and double the efficiency of petrol vehicles.

Electric vehicles powered by batteries are another alternative, and these have the advantage of having the highest well-to-wheels efficiency rate of any energy pathway and thus would allow much greater numbers of vehicles than any other methods. In addition, even if the electricity was sourced from coal-fired power plants, two advantages would remain: first it is cheaper to sequester carbon from a few thousand smokestacks than it is to retrofit hundreds of millions of vehicles, and second encouraging the use of electric vehicles allows a further pathway for scaling up of renewable energy sources.

Alternative aviation fuel

The Airbus A380 flew on alternative fuel for the first time on 1 February 2008. Boeing also plans to use alternative fuel on the 747.[223] Because some biofuels such as ethanol contains less energy, more "tankstops" might be necessary for such planes.

The US Air Force is currently in the process of certifying its entire fleet to run on a 50/50 blend of synthetic fuel derived from the Fischer–Tropsch process and JP-8 jet fuel.[224]

Conservation

When alternative fuels are not available, the development of more energy efficient vehicles becomes an important mitigant. Some ways of decreasing the oil used in transportation include increasing the use of bicycles, public transport, carpooling, electric vehicles, and diesel and hybrid vehicles with higher fuel efficiency.

More comprehensive mitigations include better land use planning through smart growth to reduce the need for private transportation, increased capacity and use of mass transit, vanpooling and carpooling,[225] bus rapid transit, remote work, and human-powered transport from current levels.[226] Rationing and driving bans are also forms of reducing private transportation.[225] The higher oil prices of 2007 and 2008 caused United States drivers to begin driving less in 2007 and to a much greater extent in the first three months of 2008.[204][205]

In order to deal with potential problems from peak oil, Colin Campbell has proposed the Rimini protocol, a plan which among other things would require countries to balance oil consumption with their current production.

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ "Energy Transition Investment Hit $500 Billion in 2020 – For First Time". Bloomberg New Energy Finance. 19 January 2021. Archived from the original on 19 January 2021.
  2. ↑ Catsaros, Oktavia (26 January 2023). "Global Low-Carbon Energy Technology Investment Surges Past $1 Trillion for the First Time - Figure 1". Bloomberg NEF (New Energy Finance). Archived from the original on 22 May 2023. Defying supply chain disruptions and macroeconomic headwinds, 2022 energy transition investment jumped 31% to draw level with fossil fuels
  3. ↑ Chrobak, Ula; Chodosh, Sara (28 January 2021). "Solar power got cheap. So why aren't we using it more?". Popular Science. Archived from the original on 29 January 2021. ● Chodosh's graphic is derived from data in "Lazard's Levelized Cost of Energy Version 14.0" (PDF). Lazard.com. Lazard. 19 October 2020. Archived (PDF) from the original on 28 January 2021.
  4. ↑ "2023 Levelized Cost Of Energy+". Lazard. 12 April 2023. p. 9. Archived from the original on 27 August 2023. (Download link labeled "Lazard's LCOE+ (April 2023) (1) PDF—1MB")
  5. ↑ "Nearly a quarter of the operating U.S. coal-fired fleet scheduled to retire by 2029". www.eia.gov. Retrieved 21 February 2023.
  6. ↑ "Australia hastens coal plant closures to catch up on climate". Nikkei Asia. Retrieved 21 February 2023.
  7. ↑ "Our members". PPCA. 2 August 2022. Retrieved 21 February 2023.
  8. ↑ "Coal-Fired Electricity – Analysis". IEA. Retrieved 21 February 2023.
  9. ↑ "No EU agreement on fossil phase-out text". Argus Media. 20 February 2023. Retrieved 21 February 2023.
  10. ↑ Green, F.; Denniss, R. (2018). "Cutting with both arms of the scissors: the economic and political case for restrictive supply-side climate policies". Climatic Change. 150 (1): 73–87. Bibcode:2018ClCh..150...73G. doi:10.1007/s10584-018-2162-x. S2CID 59374909. Archived from the original on 2 November 2021. Retrieved 2 November 2021.
  11. ↑ "Fossil fuel producers must be forced to 'take back' carbon, say scientists". The Guardian. 12 January 2023. Retrieved 12 January 2023.
  12. 1 2 Bank, European Investment (2 February 2023). Energy Overview 2023 (Report).
  13. ↑ Nations, United. "Renewable energy – powering a safer future". United Nations. Retrieved 9 March 2023.
  14. ↑ "EU's circular economy action plan released in 2020 A.D." Archived from the original on 29 October 2020. Retrieved 23 October 2020.
  15. 1 2 "Retired Coal-fired Power Capacity by Country / Global Coal Plant Tracker". Global Energy Monitor. 2023. Archived from the original on 9 April 2023. — Global Energy Monitor's Summary of Tables (archive)
  16. ↑ Shared attribution: Global Energy Monitor, CREA, E3G, Reclaim Finance, Sierra Club, SFOC, Kiko Network, CAN Europe, Bangladesh Groups, ACJCE, Chile Sustentable (5 April 2023). "Boom and Bust Coal / Tracking the Global Coal Plant Pipeline" (PDF). Global Energy Monitor. p. 3. Archived (PDF) from the original on 7 April 2023.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  17. ↑ "New Coal-fired Power Capacity by Country / Global Coal Plant Tracker". Global Energy Monitor. 2023. Archived from the original on 19 March 2023. — Global Energy Monitor's Summary of Tables (archive)
  18. ↑ "Analysis: Why coal use must plummet this decade to keep global warming below 1.5C". Carbon Brief. 6 February 2020. Archived from the original on 16 February 2020. Retrieved 8 February 2020.
  19. ↑ "Statistics". iea.org. Archived from the original on 28 June 2019. Retrieved 28 May 2019.
  20. ↑ "China's unbridled export of coal power imperils climate goals". Archived from the original on 6 December 2018. Retrieved 7 December 2018.
  21. ↑ "Coal exit benefits outweigh its costs – PIK Research Portal". pik-potsdam.de. Archived from the original on 24 March 2020. Retrieved 24 March 2020.
  22. ↑ "The Production Gap Executive Summary" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 21 November 2019. Retrieved 20 November 2019.
  23. ↑ "In coal we trust: Australian voters back PM Morrison's faith in fossil fuel". Reuters. 19 May 2019. Archived from the original on 28 May 2019. Retrieved 28 May 2019.
  24. ↑ Rockström, Johan; et al. (2017). "A roadmap for rapid decarbonization" (PDF). Science. 355 (6331): 1269–1271. Bibcode:2017Sci...355.1269R. doi:10.1126/science.aah3443. PMID 28336628. S2CID 36453591. Archived (PDF) from the original on 14 April 2021. Retrieved 11 September 2020.
  25. ↑ "Time for China to Stop Bankrolling Coal". The Diplomat. 29 April 2019. Archived from the original on 6 June 2019. Retrieved 28 May 2019.
  26. ↑ "Powering Past Coal Alliance members list". Poweringpastcoal.org. Archived from the original on 27 March 2019. Retrieved 20 September 2018.
  27. ↑ "Powering Past Coal Alliance declaration". Poweringpastcoal.org. Archived from the original on 2 February 2019. Retrieved 20 September 2018.
  28. ↑ "The EBRD's just transition initiative". European Bank for Reconstruction and Development. Archived from the original on 26 September 2020. Retrieved 4 August 2020.
  29. ↑ "UN Secretary-General calls for end to new coal plants after 2020". Business Green. 10 May 2019. Archived from the original on 19 May 2019. Retrieved 28 May 2019.
  30. ↑ "The dirtiest fossil fuel is on the back foot". The Economist. 3 December 2020. ISSN 0013-0613. Archived from the original on 19 November 2021. Retrieved 1 January 2021.
  31. ↑ "Clean Vehicles". Archived from the original on 15 December 2018. Retrieved 11 December 2018.
  32. ↑ "COP26 Energy Transition Council launched". GOV.UK. 21 September 2020. Archived from the original on 6 October 2020. Retrieved 25 October 2020. In the next phase of this partnership, we must focus even more strongly on working with business to accelerate the development of solutions that are critical to achieve net zero, such as energy storage and clean hydrogen production.
  33. ↑ "Natural Gas as a Bridge Fuel : Measuring the Bridge" (PDF). Energycenter.org. 2016. Archived (PDF) from the original on 24 April 2017. Retrieved 9 June 2017.
  34. ↑ "Stranded assets are an increasing risk for investors". Raconteur. 21 March 2019. Archived from the original on 10 May 2019. Retrieved 26 May 2019.
  35. ↑ Simon, Frédéric (27 March 2019). "Gas network chief: 'By 2050, we assume CO2 emissions from energy will be zero'". euractiv.com. Archived from the original on 26 May 2019. Retrieved 26 May 2019.
  36. ↑ "Preparing Dutch homes for a natural gas-free future". European Climate Foundation. Archived from the original on 26 May 2019. Retrieved 26 May 2019.
  37. ↑ "Seattle Bans Natural Gas in New Buildings". The National Law Review. Archived from the original on 16 February 2021. Retrieved 6 March 2021.
  38. ↑ "End fossil fuel subsidies and reset the economy – IMF head". World Economic Forum. 3 June 2020. Archived from the original on 28 October 2020. Retrieved 27 October 2020.
  39. 1 2 Krane, Jim; Matar, Walid; Monaldi, Francisco (October 2020). "Fossil Fuel Subsidy Reform Since the Pittsburgh G20: A Lost Decade?". Rice University's Baker Institute for Public Policy. doi:10.25613/sk5h-f056. Archived from the original on 19 November 2021. Retrieved 27 October 2020.
  40. ↑ Carrington, Damian (12 March 2019). "Air pollution deaths are double previous estimates, finds research". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 4 February 2020. Retrieved 12 March 2019.
  41. ↑ Ramanathan, V.; Haines, A.; Burnett, R. T.; Pozzer, A.; Klingmüller, K.; Lelieveld, J. (9 April 2019). "Effects of fossil fuel and total anthropogenic emission removal on public health and climate". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 116 (15): 7192–7197. Bibcode:2019PNAS..116.7192L. doi:10.1073/pnas.1819989116. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 6462052. PMID 30910976.
  42. ↑ "Rapid global switch to renewable energy estimated to save millions of lives annually". LSHTM. Archived from the original on 2 March 2020. Retrieved 2 June 2019.
  43. ↑ "Letters to the editor". The Economist. 9 May 2019. ISSN 0013-0613. Archived from the original on 23 June 2019. Retrieved 2 June 2019.
  44. ↑ "Trends in global CO2 and total greenhouse gas emissions: 2019 Report" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 31 October 2020. Retrieved 25 October 2020.
  45. ↑ "COP26 Energy Transition Council launched". GOV.UK. 21 September 2020. Archived from the original on 6 October 2020. Retrieved 25 October 2020. The International Energy Agency has told us that to meet the goals of the Paris Agreement, the global transition to clean power needs to move four times faster than our current pace.
  46. ↑ Welsby, Dan; Price, James; Pye, Steve; Ekins, Paul (8 September 2021). "Unextractable fossil fuels in a 1.5 °C world". Nature. 597 (7875): 230–234. Bibcode:2021Natur.597..230W. doi:10.1038/s41586-021-03821-8. ISSN 1476-4687. PMID 34497394. S2CID 237455006. Archived from the original on 10 September 2021. Retrieved 10 September 2021.
  47. ↑ Damian, Carrington (8 September 2021). "How much of the world's oil needs to stay in the ground?". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 19 November 2021. Retrieved 10 September 2021.
  48. 1 2 Heinrichs, Heidi Ursula; Schumann, Diana; Vögele, Stefan; Biß, Klaus Hendrik; Shamon, Hawal; Markewitz, Peter; Többen, Johannes; Gillessen, Bastian; Gotzens, Fabian (1 May 2017). "Integrated assessment of a phase-out of coal-fired power plants in Germany". Energy. 126: 285–305. doi:10.1016/j.energy.2017.03.017.
  49. ↑ "Nuclear Power in France | French Nuclear Energy – World Nuclear Association". www.world-nuclear.org. Archived from the original on 7 February 2016. Retrieved 18 January 2021.
  50. ↑ "Home". Nuclear Energy Institute. Archived from the original on 18 January 2021. Retrieved 18 January 2021.
  51. ↑ "Elektrifizierung 2.0". October 2021.
  52. ↑ Boss, Stefan (8 July 2018). "Unter Strom – wie die Schweiz elektrifiziert wurde". swissinfo.ch (in German).
  53. ↑ "Why France has a nuclear-powered economy — and America doesn't | AEI".
  54. ↑ "France Presses Ahead with Nuclear Power". NPR.org.
  55. ↑ "America, the Netherlands, and the Oil Crisis: 50 Years Later". 26 April 2019.
  56. ↑ "Why is cycling so popular in the Netherlands?". BBC News. 7 August 2013.
  57. ↑ "The Danish Solution to the Oil Crisis". 10 August 2014.
  58. ↑ "Danish cycling history".
  59. ↑ Browning, Noah; Kelly, Stephanie (8 March 2022). "Analysis: Ukraine crisis could boost ballooning fossil fuel subsidies". Reuters. Retrieved 2 April 2022.
  60. ↑ "Energy subsidies – Topics". IEA. Archived from the original on 26 January 2021. Retrieved 27 October 2020.
  61. ↑ "Data – Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development". oecd.org. Archived from the original on 10 November 2020. Retrieved 27 October 2020.
  62. ↑ Irfan, Umair (17 May 2019). "Fossil fuels are underpriced by a whopping $5.2 trillion". Vox. Retrieved 23 November 2019.
  63. ↑ Laville, Sandra (24 October 2019). "Fossil fuel big five 'spent €251m lobbying EU' since 2010". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 23 November 2019.
  64. ↑ "Breaking up with fossil fuels". UNDP. Retrieved 24 November 2022.
  65. ↑ Gencsu, Ipek; Walls, Ginette; Picciariello, Angela; Alasia, Ibifuro Joy (2 November 2022). "Nigeria's energy transition: reforming fossil fuel subsidies and other financing opportunities". ODI: Think change. Retrieved 24 November 2022.
  66. ↑ "How Reforming Fossil Fuel Subsidies Can Go Wrong: A lesson from Ecuador". IISD. Retrieved 11 November 2019.
  67. ↑ Carrington, Damian (6 October 2021). "Fossil fuel industry gets subsidies of $11m a minute, IMF finds". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 6 October 2021. Retrieved 11 December 2021.
  68. ↑ "| Fossil Fuel Subsidies". IMF. Archived from the original on 31 October 2020. Retrieved 27 October 2020.
  69. 1 2 Barker; et al. (2001). "9.2.1.2 Reducing Subsidies in the Energy Sector". Climate Change 2001: IPCC Third Assessment Report Working Group III: Mitigation. International Panel on Climate Change. Archived from the original on 5 August 2009. Retrieved 1 September 2010.
  70. ↑ "Fossil Fuel to Clean Energy Subsidy Swaps: How to pay for an energy revolution". IISD. 7 June 2019. Retrieved 23 November 2019.
  71. ↑ "Fossil Fuel Subsidies". IMF. Retrieved 2 January 2024. Raising fuel prices to their fully efficient levels reduces projected global fossil fuel CO2 emissions 43 percent below baseline levels in 2030—or 34 percent below 2019 emissions. This reduction is in line with the 25-50 percent reduction in global GHGs below 2019 levels needed by 2030 to be on track with containing global warming to the Paris goal of 1.5-2C.
  72. ↑ Hostettler, Silvia; Gadgil, Ashok; Hazboun, Eileen, eds. (2015). Sustainable Access to Energy in the Global South: Essential Technologies and Implementation Approaches. Cham: Springer. ISBN 978-3-319-20209-9. OCLC 913742250.
  73. ↑ Jacobson, M.Z. and Delucchi, M.A. (November 2009) "A Plan to Power 100 Percent of the Planet with Renewables" (originally published as "A Path to Sustainable Energy by 2030") Scientific American 301(5):58–65
  74. ↑ Jacobson, M.Z. (2009) "Review of solutions to global warming, air pollution, and energy security" Energy and Environmental Science 2:148-73 doi:10.1039/b809990c (review)
  75. ↑ Runyon, Jennifer (23 June 2021). "Report: New solar is cheaper to build than to run existing coal plants in China, India and most of Europe". Renewable Energy World.
  76. ↑ "Share of cumulative power capacity by technology, 2010-2027". IEA.org. International Energy Agency (IEA). 5 December 2022. Archived from the original on 4 February 2023. Source states "Fossil fuel capacity from IEA (2022), World Energy Outlook 2022. IEA. Licence: CC BY 4.0."
  77. ↑ Bond, Kingsmill; Butler-Sloss, Sam; Lovins, Amory; Speelman, Laurens; Topping, Nigel (13 June 2023). "Report / 2023 / X-Change: Electricity / On track for disruption". Rocky Mountain Institute. Archived from the original on 13 July 2023.
  78. ↑ Data: BP Statistical Review of World Energy, and Ember Climate (3 November 2021). "Electricity consumption from fossil fuels, nuclear and renewables, 2020". OurWorldInData.org. Our World in Data consolidated data from BP and Ember. Archived from the original on 3 November 2021.
  79. ↑ Jones, Dave; Gutmann, Kathrin (December 2015). End of an era: why every European country needs a coal phase-out plan (PDF). London, UK and Brussels, Belgium: Greenpeace and Climate Action Network Europe. Archived (PDF) from the original on 17 October 2016. Retrieved 14 September 2016.
  80. ↑ Mathiesen, Karl (23 September 2016). "Existing coal, oil and gas fields will blow carbon budget – study". The Guardian. London, UK. Archived from the original on 23 September 2016. Retrieved 28 September 2016.
  81. ↑ Turnbull, David (22 September 2016). "Fossil Fuel Expansion Has Reached the Sky's Limit: Report" (Press release). Washington DC, US: Oil Change International. Archived from the original on 23 September 2016. Retrieved 27 September 2016.
  82. 1 2 Muttitt, Greg (September 2016). The sky's limit: why the Paris climate goals require a managed decline of fossil fuel production (PDF). Washington DC, US: Oil Change International. Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 January 2020. Retrieved 27 September 2016.
  83. ↑ Nuccitelli, Dana (31 October 2016). "Coal doesn't help the poor; it makes them poorer". The Guardian. London, United Kingdom. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the original on 9 January 2020. Retrieved 31 October 2016.
  84. ↑ Granoff, Ilmi; Hogarth, James Ryan; Wykes, Sarah; Doig, Alison (October 2016). "Beyond coal: scaling up clean energy to fight global poverty". Overseas Development Institute (ODI). London, United Kingdom. Archived from the original on 1 November 2016. Retrieved 31 October 2016.
  85. ↑ Granoff, Ilmi; Hogarth, James Ryan; Wykes, Sarah; Doig, Alison (October 2016). Beyond coal: Scaling up clean energy to fight global poverty — Position paper (PDF). London, United Kingdom: Overseas Development Institute (ODI). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 February 2017. Retrieved 31 October 2016.
  86. ↑ Wilson, IAG; Staffell, I (2018). "Rapid fuel switching from coal to natural gas through effective carbon pricing" (PDF). Nature Energy. 3 (5): 365–372. Bibcode:2018NatEn...3..365W. doi:10.1038/s41560-018-0109-0. S2CID 169652126. Archived (PDF) from the original on 1 May 2019. Retrieved 4 July 2019.
  87. ↑ Gaulin, N.; Le Billon, P. (2020). "Climate change and fossil fuel production cuts: Assessing global supply-side constraints and policy implications". Climate Policy. 20 (8): 888–901. Bibcode:2020CliPo..20..888G. doi:10.1080/14693062.2020.1725409. S2CID 214511488. Archived from the original on 3 November 2021. Retrieved 3 November 2021.
  88. ↑ Overland, Indra; Bazilian, Morgan; Ilimbek Uulu, Talgat; Vakulchuk, Roman; Westphal, Kirsten (2019). "The GeGaLo index: Geopolitical gains and losses after energy transition". Energy Strategy Reviews. 26: 100406. doi:10.1016/j.esr.2019.100406. hdl:11250/2634876.
  89. ↑ Taylor, Damian Carrington Matthew (11 May 2022). "Revealed: the 'carbon bombs' set to trigger catastrophic climate breakdown". The Guardian. Retrieved 5 July 2022.
  90. ↑ Niklas, Sarah; Teske, Sven (June 2021). "Fossil Fuel Exit Strategy: An orderly wind down of coal, oil, and gas to meet the Paris Agreement". Institute for Sustainable Futures, University of Technology Sydney. p. 6. Archived from the original on 11 August 2021. Retrieved 28 July 2021.
  91. ↑ Ramirez, Rachel. "Majority of remaining fossil fuels must stay in the ground to limit climate crisis below critical threshold, study shows". CNN. Archived from the original on 18 October 2021. Retrieved 18 October 2021.
  92. ↑ Welsby, Dan; Price, James; Pye, Steve; Ekins, Paul (September 2021). "Unextractable fossil fuels in a 1.5 °C world". Nature. 597 (7875): 230–234. Bibcode:2021Natur.597..230W. doi:10.1038/s41586-021-03821-8. ISSN 1476-4687. PMID 34497394. S2CID 237455006.
  93. ↑ "World Energy Investment 2023" (PDF). IEA.org. International Energy Agency. May 2023. p. 61. Archived (PDF) from the original on 7 August 2023.
  94. 1 2 Bousso, Ron (8 February 2023). "Big Oil doubles profits in blockbuster 2022". Reuters. Archived from the original on 31 March 2023. ● Details for 2020 from the more detailed diagram in King, Ben (12 February 2023). "Why are BP, Shell, and other oil giants making so much money right now?". BBC. Archived from the original on 22 April 2023.
  95. ↑ "Key World Energy Statistics" (PDF). International Energy Agency. 2016. Archived (PDF) from the original on 26 October 2016. Retrieved 6 May 2017.
  96. ↑ Green, R; Staffell, I (2016). "Electricity in Europe: exiting fossil fuels?". Oxford Review of Economic Policy. 32 (2): 282–303. doi:10.1093/oxrep/grw003. hdl:10044/1/29487.
  97. ↑ Tvinnereim, Endre; Ivarsflaten, Elisabeth (1 September 2016). "Fossil fuels, employment, and support for climate policies". Energy Policy. 96: 364–371. doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2016.05.052.
  98. ↑ "The West's Nuclear Mistake". MSN. Retrieved 8 December 2021.
  99. ↑ Cragg, Michael I.; Zhou, Yuyu; Gurney, Kevin; Kahn, Matthew E. (1 April 2013). "Carbon Geography: The Political Economy of Congressional Support for Legislation Intended to Mitigate Greenhouse Gas Production" (PDF). Economic Inquiry. 51 (2): 1640–1650. doi:10.1111/j.1465-7295.2012.00462.x. S2CID 8804524. SSRN 2225690. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2 June 2018. Retrieved 29 August 2019.
  100. ↑ "Integrating Variable Renewable Energy: Challenges and Solutions" (PDF). National Renewable Energy Laboratory. Archived (PDF) from the original on 21 May 2021. Retrieved 8 November 2021.
  101. ↑ Rempel, Arthur; Gupta, Joyeeta (1 October 2021). "Fossil fuels, stranded assets and COVID-19: Imagining an inclusive & transformative recovery". World Development. 146: 105608. doi:10.1016/j.worlddev.2021.105608. ISSN 0305-750X. PMC 9758387. PMID 36569408. S2CID 237663504.
  102. ↑ Heath, Garvin A.; Silverman, Timothy J.; Kempe, Michael; Deceglie, Michael; Ravikumar, Dwarakanath; Remo, Timothy; Cui, Hao; Sinha, Parikhit; Libby, Cara; Shaw, Stephanie; Komoto, Keiichi; Wambach, Karsten; Butler, Evelyn; Barnes, Teresa; Wade, Andreas (July 2020). "Research and development priorities for silicon photovoltaic module recycling to support a circular economy". Nature Energy. 5 (7): 502–510. Bibcode:2020NatEn...5..502H. doi:10.1038/s41560-020-0645-2. ISSN 2058-7546. S2CID 220505135. Archived from the original on 21 August 2021. Retrieved 26 June 2021.
  103. ↑ Tabuchi, Hiroko (21 November 2022). "Inside the Saudi Strategy to Keep the World Hooked on Oil". The New York Times. Retrieved 21 November 2022.
  104. 1 2 Mallapaty, Smriti (19 October 2020). "How China could be carbon neutral by mid-century". Nature. 586 (7830): 482–483. Bibcode:2020Natur.586..482M. doi:10.1038/d41586-020-02927-9. PMID 33077972.
  105. ↑ "China coal output hits record in Nov to ensure winter supply | Reuters". Reuters. 15 December 2021.
  106. ↑ "A new circular economy action plan". Archived from the original on 29 October 2020. Retrieved 23 October 2020.
  107. ↑ "Coal Information Overview 2019" (PDF). International Energy Agency. Archived (PDF) from the original on 16 May 2020. Retrieved 28 March 2020. peak production in 2013
  108. ↑ "Initiative". Archived from the original on 21 October 2020. Retrieved 23 October 2020.
  109. ↑ "COMMUNICATION FROM THE COMMISSION TO THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT, THE EUROPEAN COUNCIL, THE COUNCIL, THE EUROPEAN ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COMMITTEE AND THE COMMITTEE OF THE REGIONS" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 24 October 2020. Retrieved 23 October 2020.
  110. ↑ "India will exceed its climate commitments: PM Narendra Modi". Archived from the original on 13 December 2020. Retrieved 13 December 2020.
  111. ↑ "INDC submission" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 28 September 2018. Retrieved 12 December 2020.
  112. ↑ McCurry, Justin (26 October 2020). "Japan will become carbon neutral by 2050, PM pledges". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the original on 6 April 2021. Retrieved 26 October 2020.
  113. ↑ Hanna Ziady (6 October 2020). "All 30 million British homes could be powered by offshore wind in 2030". CNN. Retrieved 25 October 2020.
  114. ↑ See McGaughey, E.; Lawrence, M. "The Green Recovery Act 2020". Common Wealth. and Green New Deal for Europe (Report) (II ed.). 2019.
  115. ↑ "Energy Transition Investment Now On Par with Fossil Fuel". Bloomberg NEF (New Energy Finance). 10 February 2023. Archived from the original on 27 March 2023.
  116. ↑ "The European Power Sector in 2020 / Up-to-Date Analysis on the Electricity Transition" (PDF). ember-climate.org. Ember and Agora Energiewende. 25 January 2021. Archived (PDF) from the original on 25 January 2021.
  117. ↑ Owusu, Phebe Asantewaa; Asumadu-Sarkodie, Samuel (2016). "A review of renewable energy sources, sustainability issues and climate change mitigation". Cogent Engineering. 3 (1): 1167990. doi:10.1080/23311916.2016.1167990.
  118. ↑ Ellabban, Omar; Abu-Rub, Haitham; Blaabjerg, Frede (2014). "Renewable energy resources: Current status, future prospects and their enabling technology". Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 39: 748–764 [749]. doi:10.1016/j.rser.2014.07.113.
  119. ↑ Timperly, Jocelyn (23 February 2017). "Biomass subsidies 'not fit for purpose', says Chatham House". Carbon Brief Ltd © 2020 - Company No. 07222041. Archived from the original on 6 November 2020. Retrieved 31 October 2020.
  120. ↑ Harvey, Chelsea; Heikkinen, Niina (23 March 2018). "Congress Says Biomass Is Carbon Neutral but Scientists Disagree - Using wood as fuel source could actually increase CO2 emissions". Scientific American. Archived from the original on 1 November 2020. Retrieved 31 October 2020.
  121. ↑ Alazraque-Cherni, Judith (1 April 2008). "Renewable Energy for Rural Sustainability in Developing Countries". Bulletin of Science, Technology & Society. 28 (2): 105–114. doi:10.1177/0270467607313956. S2CID 67817602. Archived from the original on 19 March 2021. Retrieved 2 December 2020.
  122. ↑ World Energy Assessment (2001). Renewable energy technologies Archived 9 June 2007 at the Wayback Machine, p. 221.
  123. ↑ Armaroli, Nicola; Balzani, Vincenzo (2011). "Towards an electricity-powered world". Energy and Environmental Science. 4 (9): 3193–3222. doi:10.1039/c1ee01249e.
  124. ↑ Armaroli, Nicola; Balzani, Vincenzo (2016). "Solar Electricity and Solar Fuels: Status and Perspectives in the Context of the Energy Transition". Chemistry – A European Journal. 22 (1): 32–57. doi:10.1002/chem.201503580. PMID 26584653.
  125. ↑ "Renewables 2022". Global Status Report (renewable energies): 44. 14 June 2019. Retrieved 5 September 2022.
  126. ↑ REN21 Renewables Global Status Report 2021.
  127. ↑ "Renewables – Global Energy Review 2021 – Analysis". IEA. Archived from the original on 23 November 2021. Retrieved 22 November 2021.
  128. ↑ "Renewable Energy and Jobs – Annual Review 2020". irena.org. 29 September 2020. Archived from the original on 6 December 2020. Retrieved 2 December 2020.
  129. ↑ "Global renewable energy trends". Deloitte Insights. Archived from the original on 29 January 2019. Retrieved 28 January 2019.
  130. ↑ "Renewable Energy Now Accounts for a Third of Global Power Capacity". irena.org. 2 April 2019. Archived from the original on 2 April 2019. Retrieved 2 December 2020.
  131. ↑ IEA (2020). Renewables 2020 Analysis and forecast to 2025 (Report). p. 12. Archived from the original on 26 April 2021. Retrieved 27 April 2021.
  132. ↑ Ritchie, Hannah; Roser, Max; Rosado, Pablo (28 November 2020). "Energy". Our World in Data.
  133. ↑ Sensiba, Jennifer (28 October 2021). "Some Good News: 10 Countries Generate Almost 100% Renewable Electricity". CleanTechnica. Archived from the original on 17 November 2021. Retrieved 22 November 2021.
  134. ↑ REN21 Renewables Global Futures Report 2017.
  135. ↑ "Net Zero by 2050 – Analysis". IEA. Retrieved 19 March 2023.
  136. ↑ Bogdanov, Dmitrii; Gulagi, Ashish; Fasihi, Mahdi; Breyer, Christian (1 February 2021). "Full energy sector transition towards 100% renewable energy supply: Integrating power, heat, transport and industry sectors including desalination". Applied Energy. 283: 116273. Bibcode:2021ApEn..28316273B. doi:10.1016/j.apenergy.2020.116273. ISSN 0306-2619.
  137. ↑ Teske, Sven, ed. (2019). Achieving the Paris Climate Agreement Goals. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-05843-2. ISBN 978-3-030-05842-5. S2CID 198078901.
  138. ↑ Jacobson, Mark Z.; von Krauland, Anna-Katharina; Coughlin, Stephen J.; Dukas, Emily; Nelson, Alexander J. H.; Palmer, Frances C.; Rasmussen, Kylie R. (2022). "Low-cost solutions to global warming, air pollution, and energy insecurity for 145 countries". Energy & Environmental Science. 15 (8): 3343–3359. doi:10.1039/D2EE00722C. ISSN 1754-5692. S2CID 250126767.
  139. ↑ International Energy Agency (2012). "Energy Technology Perspectives 2012". Archived from the original on 28 May 2020. Retrieved 2 December 2020.
  140. ↑ Timperley, Jocelyn (20 October 2021). "Why fossil fuel subsidies are so hard to kill". Nature. 598 (7881): 403–405. Bibcode:2021Natur.598..403T. doi:10.1038/d41586-021-02847-2. PMID 34671143. S2CID 239052649.
  141. ↑ "Global Trends in Sustainable Energy Investment 2007: Analysis of Trends and Issues in the Financing of Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency in OECD and Developing Countries" (PDF). unep.org. United Nations Environment Programme. 2007. p. 3. Archived (PDF) from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 13 October 2014.
  142. ↑ Sütterlin, B.; Siegrist, Michael (2017). "Public acceptance of renewable energy technologies from an abstract versus concrete perspective and the positive imagery of solar power". Energy Policy. 106: 356–366. doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2017.03.061.
  143. ↑ "Executive summary – Renewables 2022 – Analysis". IEA. Retrieved 13 March 2023. Our accelerated case shows global renewable capacity can expand by an additional 25% compared with the main forecast if countries address policy, regulatory, permitting and financing challenges. …… This faster increase would significantly narrow the gap on the amount of renewable electricity growth that is needed in a pathway to net zero emissions by 2050.
  144. ↑ "Renewables 2016 Global Status Report" (PDF). REN21, Renewable Energy Policy Network for the 21st Century. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 May 2017. Retrieved 18 June 2016.
  145. ↑ "Global Electricity Review 2023". Ember. 11 April 2023. Retrieved 14 June 2023.
  146. ↑ "bp Statistical Review of World Energy 2020" (PDF). BP p.l.c. pp. 55, 59. Archived (PDF) from the original on 19 September 2020. Retrieved 23 October 2020.
  147. 1 2 "Wind energy generation vs. installed capacity". Our World in Data. Archived from the original on 19 October 2021. Retrieved 23 November 2021.
  148. 1 2 "Wind Power – Analysis". IEA. Archived from the original on 23 November 2021. Retrieved 23 November 2021.
  149. ↑ "Global wind industry breezes into new record". Energy Live News. 25 March 2022. Retrieved 2 April 2022.
  150. ↑ "Expansion of wind and solar power too slow to stop climate change". ScienceDaily. Retrieved 24 November 2021.
  151. ↑ "What are the pros and cons of onshore wind energy?". Grantham Research Institute on Climate Change and the Environment, London School of Economcis and Political Science. 12 January 2018. Archived from the original on 22 June 2019.
  152. ↑ Jones, Nathan F.; Pejchar, Liba; Kiesecker, Joseph M. (22 January 2015). "The Energy Footprint: How Oil, Natural Gas, and Wind Energy Affect Land for Biodiversity and the Flow of Ecosystem Services". BioScience. 65 (3): 290–301. doi:10.1093/biosci/biu224. Retrieved 9 November 2022.
  153. ↑ "Global Wind Report 2019". Global Wind Energy Council. 19 March 2020. Retrieved 28 March 2020.
  154. ↑ "Levelized Cost Of Energy, Levelized Cost Of Storage, and Levelized Cost Of Hydrogen". Lazard.com. Retrieved 24 November 2021.
  155. ↑ "Global Wind Atlas". DTU Technical University of Denmark. Archived from the original on 24 February 2020. Retrieved 28 March 2020.
  156. ↑ Nyenah, Emmanuel; Sterl, Sebastian; Thiery, Wim (1 May 2022). "Pieces of a puzzle: solar-wind power synergies on seasonal and diurnal timescales tend to be excellent worldwide". Environmental Research Communications. 4 (5): 055011. Bibcode:2022ERCom...4e5011N. doi:10.1088/2515-7620/ac71fb. ISSN 2515-7620. S2CID 249227821.
  157. ↑ "BP Global: Solar energy". Bp.com. Archived from the original on 6 December 2018. Retrieved 20 November 2018.
  158. ↑ "pg 27 & 28" (PDF). Ren21.net. Archived (PDF) from the original on 5 March 2016. Retrieved 26 March 2019.
  159. ↑ Cartlidge, Edwin (18 November 2011). "Saving for a rainy day". Science. 334 (6058): 922–924. Bibcode:2011Sci...334..922C. doi:10.1126/science.334.6058.922. PMID 22096185.
  160. ↑ Martin and Goswami (2005), p. 45
  161. ↑ Energy Systems (PDF) (Report). Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. 2014. Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 December 2017. Retrieved 18 June 2016.
  162. 1 2 "Difference Engine: The nuke that might have been". The Economist. 11 November 2013. Archived from the original on 19 November 2021. Retrieved 13 July 2017.
  163. ↑ Breidthardt, Annika (30 May 2011). "German government wants nuclear exit by 2022 at latest". Reuters. Archived from the original on 26 December 2019. Retrieved 5 July 2021.
  164. ↑ "Italy Nuclear Referendum Results". 13 June 2011. Archived from the original on 25 March 2012.
  165. ↑ Sokolski, Henry (28 November 2011). "Nuclear Power Goes Rogue". Newsweek. Archived from the original on 18 December 2012. Retrieved 3 July 2016.
  166. ↑ Inajima, Tsuyoshi & Okada, Yuji (28 October 2011). "Nuclear Promotion Dropped in Japan Energy Policy After Fukushima". Bloomberg L.P. Archived from the original on 1 April 2020. Retrieved 7 March 2017.
  167. ↑ "Nuclear power: When the steam clears". The Economist. 24 March 2011. Archived from the original on 19 August 2018. Retrieved 3 July 2016.
  168. 1 2 Fertl, Duroyan (5 June 2011). "Germany: Nuclear power to be phased out by 2022". Green Left. Archived from the original on 7 June 2011. Retrieved 3 July 2016.
  169. ↑ Erika Simpson and Ian Fairlie, Dealing with nuclear waste is so difficult that phasing out nuclear power would be the best option Archived 14 December 2017 at the Wayback Machine, Lfpress, 26 February 2016.
  170. ↑ Kanter, James (25 May 2011). "Switzerland Decides on Nuclear Phase-Out". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 14 July 2018. Retrieved 21 February 2017.
  171. ↑ Foehringer Merchant, Emma (8 October 2018). "IPCC: Renewables to Supply 70%–85% of Electricity by 2050 to Avoid Worst Impacts of Climate Change". Greentech Media. Archived from the original on 22 November 2021. Retrieved 22 November 2021.
  172. ↑ "Global climate objectives fall short without nuclear power in the mix: UNECE". United Nations Economic Commission for Europe. 11 August 2021. Archived from the original on 22 November 2021. Retrieved 22 November 2021.
  173. 1 2 Parshley, Lois (4 May 2021). "The controversial future of nuclear power in the U.S." National Geographic. Archived from the original on 21 November 2021. Retrieved 22 November 2021.
  174. ↑ Proctor, Darrell (4 January 2021). "Governments Look to Expand Nuclear Power Through SMRs". Power Magazine. Archived from the original on 22 November 2021. Retrieved 22 November 2021.
  175. ↑ Proctor, Darrell (25 February 2020). "Tech Guru's Plan—Fight Climate Change with Nuclear Power". Power Magazine. Archived from the original on 20 October 2021. Retrieved 22 November 2021.
  176. ↑ Biomass Energy Center Archived 8 October 2006 at the Wayback Machine. Biomassenergycentre.org.uk. Retrieved 28 February 2012.
  177. ↑ Eartha Jane Melzer (26 January 2010). "Proposed biomass plant: Better than coal?". The Michigan Messenger. Archived from the original on 14 May 2012.
  178. ↑ Zhang, J.; Smith, K. R. (2007). "Household Air Pollution from Coal and Biomass Fuels in China: Measurements, Health Impacts, and Interventions". Environmental Health Perspectives. 115 (6): 848–855. doi:10.1289/ehp.9479. PMC 1892127. PMID 17589590.
  179. ↑ "Announcement". Archives of Virology. 130 (1–2): 225. 1993. doi:10.1007/BF01319012.
  180. ↑ Springsteen, Bruce; Christofk, Tom; Eubanks, Steve; Mason, Tad; Clavin, Chris; Storey, Brett (2011). "Emission Reductions from Woody Biomass Waste for Energy as an Alternative to Open Burning". Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association. 61 (1): 63–68. Bibcode:2011JAWMA..61...63S. doi:10.3155/1047-3289.61.1.63. PMID 21305889.
  181. ↑ Starke, Linda (2009). State of the World 2009: Into a Warming World: a WorldWatch Institute Report on Progress Toward a Sustainable Society. WW Norton and Company. ISBN 978-0-393-33418-0.
  182. ↑ Gustafsson, O.; Krusa, M.; Zencak, Z.; Sheesley, R. J.; Granat, L.; Engstrom, E.; Praveen, P. S.; Rao, P. S. P.; et al. (2009). "Brown Clouds over South Asia: Biomass or Fossil Fuel Combustion?". Science. 323 (5913): 495–8. Bibcode:2009Sci...323..495G. doi:10.1126/science.1164857. PMID 19164746. S2CID 44712883.
  183. ↑ Klimaråd: Affaldsimport vil belaste dansk CO2-regnskab Archived 28 November 2015 at the Wayback Machine 27 November 2015.
  184. ↑ Danish energy statistics, 2014 Archived 21 January 2016 at the Wayback Machine page 5 and 12
  185. ↑ "Renewable Power Costs in 2022". IRENA.org. International Renewable Energy Agency. August 2023. Archived from the original on 29 August 2023.
  186. ↑ "Majority of New Renewables Undercut Cheapest Fossil Fuel on Cost". IRENA.org. International Renewable Energy Agency. 22 June 2021. Archived from the original on 22 June 2021. ● Infographic (with numerical data) and archive thereof
  187. ↑ Renewable Energy Generation Costs in 2022 (PDF). International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA). 2023. p. 57. ISBN 978-92-9260-544-5. Archived (PDF) from the original on 30 August 2023. Fig. 1.11
  188. ↑ "Why did renewables become so cheap so fast?". Our World in Data. Retrieved 4 June 2022.
  189. ↑ InterAcademy Council (2007). Lighting the way: Toward a sustainable energy future Archived 28 November 2007 at the Wayback Machine
  190. 1 2 American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy (2007). The Twin Pillars of Sustainable Energy: Synergies between Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Technology and Policy Report E074.
  191. ↑ International Energy Agency (2007). Global Best Practice in Renewable Energy Policy Making Archived 3 June 2016 at the Wayback Machine
  192. ↑ Data from McKerracher, Colin (12 January 2023). "Electric Vehicles Look Poised for Slower Sales Growth This Year". BloombergNEF. Archived from the original on 12 January 2023.
  193. ↑ Burch, Isabella (September 2018). "Survey of Global Activity to Phase Out Internal Combustion Engine Vehicles" (PDF). Climateprotection.org. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 July 2019. Retrieved 23 January 2019.
  194. ↑ "International Trade Governance and Sustainable Transport: The Expansion of Electric Vehicles" (PDF). International Centre for Trade and Sustainable Development. December 2017. Archived from the original (PDF) on 31 July 2020. Retrieved 23 January 2019.
  195. ↑ Asthana, Anushka; Taylor, Matthew (25 July 2017). "Britain to ban sale of all diesel and petrol cars and vans from 2040". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 26 January 2019. Retrieved 27 January 2019.
  196. ↑ The Royal Society (January 2008). Sustainable biofuels: prospects and challenges, ISBN 978-0-85403-662-2, p. 61.
  197. ↑ Gordon Quaiattini. Biofuels are part of the solution Canada.com, 25 April 2008. Retrieved 23 December 2009.
  198. ↑ Cited in Tim Flannery, Atmosphere of Hope. Solutions to the Climate Crisis, Penguin Books, 2015, pages 123–124 (ISBN 9780141981048).
  199. ↑ "What Americans think about an energy transition from fossil fuels to renewables". 28 June 2023.
  200. ↑ Nichols, Michelle (24 September 2008). "Gore urges civil disobedience to stop coal plants". Reuters. Archived from the original on 23 September 2016. Retrieved 22 September 2016.
  201. ↑ "Google CEO ERic Schmidt offers energy plan," Archived 20 September 2012 at the Wayback Machine San Jose Mercury News, 9 September 2008
  202. ↑ Robert L. Hirsch. "The Shape of World Oil Peaking: Learning From Experience" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 21 June 2007. Retrieved 21 June 2007.
  203. ↑ Jim Bartis, RAND Corporation (2006). "Unconventional Liquid Fuels Overview. 2006 Boston World Oil Conference" (PDF). Association for the Study of Peak Oil & Gas - USA. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 July 2011. Retrieved 28 June 2007.
  204. 1 2 Frank Langfitt (5 March 2008). "Americans Using Less Gasoline". NPR. Archived from the original on 27 August 2009. Retrieved 2 April 2018.
  205. 1 2 Marianne Lavelle (4 March 2008). "Oil Demand Is Dropping, but Prices Aren't". U.S. News & World Report. Archived from the original on 12 October 2008. Retrieved 5 September 2017.
  206. ↑ "President Discusses Advanced Energy Initiative In Milwaukee". Archived from the original on 5 October 2017. Retrieved 5 September 2017.
  207. ↑ "Proposition 87" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 June 2007.
  208. ↑ "EIA - International Energy Outlook 2007 - Figure 33". Archived from the original on 12 October 2007. Retrieved 24 August 2007.
  209. ↑ Sasidhar, Nallapaneni (November 2023). "Carbon Neutral Fuels and Chemicals from Standalone Biomass Refineries" (PDF). Indian Journal of Environment Engineering. 3 (2): 1–8. doi:10.54105/ijee.B1845.113223. ISSN 2582-9289. S2CID 265385618. Retrieved 3 December 2023.
  210. ↑ T. M. Letcher, ed. (2020). "Chapter 9: Biofuels for transport". Future energy : improved, sustainable and clean options for our planet (3rd ed.). Amsterdam, Netherlands. ISBN 978-0-08-102887-2. OCLC 1137604985.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  211. ↑ "Biofuels explained - U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA)". www.eia.gov. Retrieved 24 January 2023.
  212. ↑ T. M. Letcher, ed. (2020). "Chapter1: Introduction With a Focus on Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide and Climate Change". Future energy : improved, sustainable and clean options for our planet (3rd ed.). Amsterdam, Netherlands. ISBN 978-0-08-102887-2. OCLC 1137604985.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  213. ↑ Lewandrowski J, Rosenfeld J, Pape D, Hendrickson T, Jaglo K, Moffroid K (25 March 2019). "The greenhouse gas benefits of corn ethanol – assessing recent evidence". Biofuels. Informa UK Limited. 11 (3): 361–375. doi:10.1080/17597269.2018.1546488. ISSN 1759-7269. S2CID 134824935.
  214. 1 2 Jeswani HK, Chilvers A, Azapagic A (November 2020). "Environmental sustainability of biofuels: a review". Proceedings of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences. 476 (2243): 20200351. Bibcode:2020RSPSA.47600351J. doi:10.1098/rspa.2020.0351. PMC 7735313. PMID 33363439.
  215. ↑ Lark TJ, Hendricks NP, Smith A, Pates N, Spawn-Lee SA, Bougie M, et al. (March 2022). "Environmental outcomes of the US Renewable Fuel Standard". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 119 (9). Bibcode:2022PNAS..11901084L. doi:10.1073/pnas.2101084119. PMC 8892349. PMID 35165202.
  216. ↑ "Renewables Report 2022". IEA.
  217. ↑ "Biofuel is approaching a feedstock crunch. How bad? And what must be done?". Energy Post. 23 January 2023. Retrieved 30 January 2023.
  218. ↑ "How to scale Sustainable Aviation Fuel in the next decade". World Economic Forum. 10 January 2023. Retrieved 30 January 2023.
  219. ↑ Bayetero CM, Yépez CM, Cevallos IB, Rueda EH (January 2022). "Effect of the use of additives in biodiesel blends on the performance and opacity of a diesel engine". Materials Today: Proceedings. Advances in Mechanical Engineering Trends. 49: 93–99. doi:10.1016/j.matpr.2021.07.478. ISSN 2214-7853. S2CID 238787289.
  220. ↑ "Saudi Gas, Renewables Will Help Boost Oil Exports". Energy Intelligence. 21 July 2022. Retrieved 21 February 2023.
  221. ↑ "California Hydrogen Activities". California Hydrogen Highway. California Environmental Protection Agency. 26 November 2012. Archived from the original on 23 January 2013. Retrieved 9 September 2013.
  222. ↑ Spiryagin, Maksym; Dixon, Roger; Oldknow, Kevin; Cole, Colin (1 September 2021). "Preface to special issue on hybrid and hydrogen technologies for railway operations". Railway Engineering Science. 29 (3): 211. doi:10.1007/s40534-021-00254-x. ISSN 2662-4753. S2CID 240522190.
  223. ↑ "Boeing announce plans to accelerate bio-jet fuel development". 8 October 2007. Archived from the original on 6 July 2008. Retrieved 2 July 2008.
  224. ↑ "SECAF certifies synthetic fuel blends for B-52H". Archived from the original on 3 March 2016.
  225. 1 2 "Saving Oil Executive Summary" (PDF). International Energy Agency. Archived (PDF) from the original on 5 June 2007.
  226. ↑ "Principal Means of Transportation to Work". Bureau of Transportation Statistics. Archived from the original on 14 July 2007.

References

This article is issued from Wikipedia. The text is licensed under Creative Commons - Attribution - Sharealike. Additional terms may apply for the media files.